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Zz Zz O RAR | ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSNI _NVINOSHLINS SSIYVUEi I Ne oe = at ANTAL SS * te AY ¢ i. ry) ‘a ‘ ry AM 4a j i” ieee Ai ly? fi Wen) i) QUARTERLY JOURNAL ~ of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: VOLUME 31 Editor PIERCE BRODKORB Published by the FLormpA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gainesville, Florida 1968 PUBLICATION DATES OF VOLUME 31 NuMBER 1: January 29, 1969 NuMBER 2: May 22, 1969 NuMBER 3: July 25, 1969 NuMBER 4: August 28, 1969 New Taxa PROPOSED IN VOLUME 31 +Eupatagus inggrZachos (Echinoidea: Spatangidae ) tAmbystoma tiheni Holman (Amphibia: Ambystomatidae ) ¢+Hyla swanstoni Holman (Amphibia: Hylidae) +Zenaidura prior Brodkorb (Aves: Columbidae ) }Pulsatrix arredondoi Brodkorb (Aves: Strigidae) +Fossil 161 276 283 174 112 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 31 NUMBER 1 A new view of the “synthesis of life” Sidney W. Fox Florida Academy of Sciences award for 1968 Population trends in some southern plantation counties Joseph S. Vandiver Copper limitation with penicillamine M. I. Djafar, H. R. Camberos, and G. K. Davis Ecology of American oysters in Old Tampa Bay, Florida John H. Finucane and Ralph W. Campbell II Capture of a tagged ridley turtle Donald E. Sweat Returns of tagged pen-reared green turtles Ross Witham and Archie Carr A review of Anolis angusticeps in the West Indies Albert Schwartz and Richard Thomas A mass inshore movement of fishes on the Florida coast Carter R. Gilbert Two birds new to the Pleistocene of Reddick, Florida Richard Brewer Fs ™ NuMBER 2 Comets, superstitions, and history Duane Koenig Amphioxus in Old Tampa Bay, Florida Gideon E. Nelson Reproduction and ecology of the longnose killifish Robert A. Martin and John H. Finucane An extinct Pleistocene owl from Cuba Pierce Brodkorb The bone-eating dog, Borophagus diversidens Cope Walter W. Dalquest Nesting status of the brown pelican in Florida in 1968 Lovett E. Williams, Jr., and Larry Martin Hippoboscid flies from cattle egrets in central Florida John B. Funderburg, Margaret L. Gilbert, and Ernest L. Bostelman Nitrate and ammonia in rumen of steers fed millet D. T. Buchman, R. L. Shirley, and G. B. Killinger Oyster shell as roughage replacement in cattle diets T. A. Dunn and J. F. Hentges ill 81 93 101 112 115 130 141 143 150 NUMBER 3 A new echinoid from the Ocala limestone Louis G. Zachos A Pleistocene herpetofauna from Kendall County, Texas J. Alan Holman An ancestral mourning dove from Rexroad, Kansas Pierce Brodkorb Vertebrate fauna of Nichol’s Hammock, a natural trap Sue E. Hirschfeld Observations on the nature of parasitism CG. E. Pice Acacia choriophylla, a tree new to Florida Taylor R. Alexander The egg and hatchling of the Suwannee terrapin Crawford G. Jackson, Jr., and Marguerite M. Jackson Records of the coal skink in Florida Henry M. Stevenson Vertebral anomaly in Micropogon undulatus David J. Hansen Armadillo distribution in Alabama and northwest Florida James L. Wolfe Tropical marine fishes from Pensacola, Florida Keitz Haburay, C. F. Crooke, and Robert Hastings Officers and members of the Academy NUMBER 4 Relationships of growth and age to organ weights in rats David B. Van Vleck and Virginia Gentle Pugheadedness in the spotted seatrout Curt D. Rose and Alva H. Harris Baby loggerhead turtles associated with sargassum weed David K. Caldwell Lower Oligocene amphibians from Saskatchewan J. Alan Holman Reptiles and birds of the Cay Sal Bank, Bahama Islands Donald W. Buden and Albert Schwartz lv 161 165 173 ILE 190 197 199 205 207 209 213 220 241 268 Pl 273 290 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 31 March, 1968 No. 1 CONTENTS A new view of the “synthesis of life” Sidney W. Fox Florida Academy of Sciences award for 1968 Population trends in some southern plantation counties Joseph S. Vandiver Copper limitation with penicillamine M. I. Djafar, H. R. Camberos, and G. K. Davis Ecology of American oysters in Old Tampa Bay, Florida John H. Finucane and Ralph W. Campbell II Capture of a tagged ridley turtle Donald E. Sweat Returns of tagged pen-reared green turtles Ross Witham and Archie Carr A review of Anolis angusticeps in the West Indies Albert Schwartz and Richard Thomas A mass inshore movement of fishes on the Florida coast Carter R. Gilbert Two birds new to the Pleistocene of Reddick, Florida Richard Brewer Mailed January 29, 1969 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing significant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets of 8% by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees. Mareins should be 1% inches all around. TrrLes should not exceed 55 characters, including spaces. Footnotes should be avoided. Give ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in the text and AppREss in paragraph form following Literature Cited. LITERATURE CITED follows the text. Double-space and follow the form in the current volume. For articles give title, journal, volume, and inclusive pages. For books give title, publisher, place, and total pages. TABLES are charged to authors at $20.00 per page or fraction. Titles must be short, but explanatory matter may be given in footnotes. Type each table on a separate sheet, double-spaced, unruled, to fit normal width of page, and place after Literature Cited. Lecenps for illustrations should be grouped on a sheet, double-spaced, in the form used in the current volume, and placed after Tables. Titles must be short but may be followed by explanatory matter. ILLUsTRATIONS are charged to authors ($17.30 per page, $15.80 per half page. Drawincs should be in India ink, or good board or drafting paper, and lettered by lettering guide or equivalent. Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. PHotTocraPHs should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of photographs. ProoF must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTS may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 31 March, 1968 No. I A New View of the “Synthesis of Life” SIDNEY W. Fox THE experimental research which is identified with our labora- tory has been carried out almost entirely within the state of Florida. The credit is properly shared with numerous devoted students and talented associates. Most of what has been done was possible because a few bioscientists in the NASA office disbursed for truly basic research a fraction of the small amount available. This came from a budget which is predominantly committed to space exploration and therefore to necessarily expensive hardware. Par- enthetically, I would like to state the opinion that this latter is itself insufficient to attain supremacy in space. Leadership in space is significant intellectually and societally if one believes, as do I, that the scientific secret of our ultimate origin is in the stars. Whoever tells us most thoroughly and accurately what and where man and his universe came from should be in position to tell us where man is going. I wish also to express appreciation to a few Florida educators. Our experiments were begun in 1953 in another state in which one educational administrator admonished me not to use the “offensive” word evolution on a college television program. In contrast, I was able to name our activity at the University of Miami an Institute of Molecular Evolution, and I was attracted to the University in part by the fact that before I arrived, its catalog already frankly listed courses in evolution. The scientific question of the synthesis of life can be analyzed as below. ; ( Synthesis ) Primordial gases —————————-» Small organic molecules [amino acids, (Polymerization ) N bases, ete.] ——————————- Macromolecules [prebiotic protein or nucleic 2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (Self Assembly ) (Reproduction and Darwinian Selection ) acid] ————__—_——___ Protocells ——@. —__—_——— s+ Contemporary cells and multicellular organisms We see that, in the later stages, one needs to concern himself with the evolution from a primitive organism to a contemporary unicellular or multicellular organism. This aspect of evolution is one which Darwin clarified by his selection mechanism. Looking back on the experimental research in the field of abiogenesis since 1950, I believe that the Darwinian part of the answer, explaining evolution from a first organism, represented by far the most intri- cate and involved aspects. That required hundreds of millions of years. When we focus our attention on the true chemical synthesis of an organism starting from nonbiological precursors, such as ac- tivatable atmospheric gases, we see that we have narrowed our questions. We have then stripped away the most forbidding part of what was not so many years ago thought of as a hopelessly im- ponderable problem. The first step from primitive reactive gases to amino acids, to the nitrogen bases of the nucleic acids, or to monosaccharides rep- resents the area in which the largest number of the few laboratories in the field have worked. Contributions have come from such laboratories as those of Calvin (1962), Ponnamperuma (1965), Oro (1965), Miller (1955), Orgel (Sanchez et al., 1966), Fox (1965, 1968), and others. The next step concerns the formation of the larger molecules, proteins, nucleic acids, and cellulose. Their for- mation is thought of as an appropriate type of polymerization of monomers. We can see also, by further analysis of this problem, that the following step is not one of true synthesis, but is rather one of structural organization of appropriate polymers. This kind of process has been referred to increasingly, by the biochemist, as an act of self-assembly. On this basis we should, strictly, not think and speak of the “synthesis of life”, but rather of the synthesis of precursor polymers and of their self-assembly into protocells. These two steps are the ones to which we have devoted major attention (Fox, 1965). Examples of self-assembly of organelles of cells are now numerous (Seventh International Congress of Bio- chem., 1967). (If, in fact, one may properly employ the jour- nalistic phrase, “secret of life’, that secret may well be the power of self-assembly. ) wy) Fox: Synthesis of Life The primitive cell, which our experiments now tell us could arise from reactant gases in less than a few hours (Fox, 1968) had then to evolve to a contemporary cell. The elegant studies that have been carried out by Goulian and Kornberg (1967) and by Spiegelman (1968) involve the dismantling of a contemporary cell and the utilization of contemporary enzymes and primer nucleic ac- ids for further synthesis of a contemporary type of RNA or of DNA, respectively. These processes do not, therefore, answer the funda- mental questions of how enzymes began in the absence of enzymes, of how cells arose in the absence of cells, or of how genes appeared in the absence of genes. Our work is aimed at these questions. In this connection, I believe also that attempts to define life have an unscientific quality. Although the definition of life has a certain pedagogical value for beginning students, many of us who have thought about the question have come to the conclusion that life is not yet definable. The definition of life has, as Melvin Calvin (1962) stated, the quality of “subjective arbitrariness”. The TABLE 1 Catalytic activities found in proteinoids Year Substrate or of Reaction Authors Publication p-Nitropheny! Acetate Fox, Harada, Rohlfing 1962 p-Nitrophenyl Acetate Noguchi, Saito 1962 p-Nitrophenyl Acetate Rohlfing and Fox 1967 p-Nitrophenyl Acetate Usdin, Mitz, Killos 1967 Glucose > glucuronic Fox and Krampitz 1964 acid (GOR ATP = ADP Fox 1965 Durant and Fox 1966 p-Nitrophenyl Phosphate Oshima 1968 Pyruvic acid > acetic Krampitz and Hardebeck 1966 acia = CO, Hardebeck, Krampitz and Wulf 1968 Oxaloacetic acid SS Rohlfing 1967 pyruvic acid + CO. Amination of «- Krampitz, Diehl, and 1967 ketoglutaric acid Nakashima Krampitz, Baars-Diehl, 1968 Haas, and Nakashima Dehydrogenation of Krampitz, Haas, Baars, 1968 glutamic acid and Nakashima ft QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES facts are not yet entirely at our disposal, at least not in a way that life scientists agree that they are. Any definition is a kind of judgment, so that one who renders a definition of life, i.e. a judg- ment, is making the judgment before having the facts. Accord- ingly, I consider such definitions to be unscientific. Our research is centered around the production of polymers of amino acids by simple heating under conditions which are not only imputable to the primitive Earth but are wide-spread on the con- temporary Earth. These protein-like polymers, or proteinoids have been shown in six laboratories to have many kinds of catalytic activity for natural substrates (Table 1). We are thus able to visualize how the first enzymes could have arisen in the absence of enzymes to make them. The appropriate geological environment and diverse amino acids would have been sufficient. A somewhat unexpected characteristic of the proteinoids is that they represent quite highly ordered polymers (Fig. 1). The order Tris-HC| 0.1N 02N 0.3N 0.6] 0.4 0.2 a O 100 200 300 400 500 Tube No. 20m. Fig. 1. Elution pattern of 1:1:1-proteinoidamide fractionated on DEAE- cellulose. Ot Fox: Synthesis of Life results internally from the selective interaction of the amino acids which are heated. We are able to understand this effect as due to the special shape and distribution of charge of each of the eighteen kinds of reactant amino acid. The evidence for this great limitation in heterogeneity has been published recently ( Fox and Nakashima, 1967). A principal significance of such results is that they suggested that prebiotic proteins might first have come into existence in the absence of nucleic acids to order the se- quences in those first proteins (Fox, 1965). This suggestion has also been made more recently by Steinman (1967) working with amino acid reactions in simpler systems. While prebiotic protein need not have had all of the properties of contemporary protein, it would have had to have sufficient to begin the line, e.g., macro- molecular order, metabolism, and cellular structure (Table 2). We may turn now in more detail to the question of self-assembly and the origin of the cell. In 1954 Professor George Wald (1954) wrote, “For a time this problem of molecular arrangement seemed TABLE 2 Properties of thermal proteinoids in common with those of contemporary proteins. Fox (1965) and bibliography. Limited heterogeneity Qualitative composition Quantitative composition Range of molecular weight Color tests Solubilities Inclusion of nonamino acid groups Optical activity Salting-in and salting-out properties Precipitability by protein reagents Hypochromicity Infrared absorption maxima Recoverability of amino acids on hydrolysis Susceptibility to proteolytic enzymes Catalytic activity Inactivatability of catalysis by heating in aqueous solution “Nonrandom” (nonuniform) sequential distribution of residues Nutritive quality Morphogenicity 6 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to present an almost insuperable obstacle in the way of imagining a spontaneous origin of life, or indeed, the Jaboratory synthesis of a living organism. It is still a large and mysterious problem, but it no longer seems insuperable. The change in view has come about because we now realize that it is not altogether necessary to bring order into this situation; a great deal of order is implicit in the molecules themselves.” This concept of the specification of mor- phology by the nature of a precursor macromolecule is an extrapo- lation of the concept, now experimentally supported, that order in primitive proteins was first determined internally by the reacting amino acids. Professor Francis Schmitt (1956) first demonstrated self-assembly of fibrils of the protein collagen (Fig. 2). Dr. A. IL. Oparin has done just one kind of experimentation in the field which he first called the origin of life, and for which I now prefer the nineteenth century phrase of spontaneous generation. Oparin used coacervate droplets (Fig. 3) made from gelatin . 2. Electron micrograph of microfibrils assembled from collagen, Sie Do Ay lauvornn Slaiamniae (1S )56))), ~l Fox: Synthesis of Life Fig. 3. Coacervate droplets. From Oparin. (1965) as models of self-ordering, or self-assembly, of the first cell. Among the defects, which Oparin acknowledges, this model em- ploys polymers from living things. As in other experiments, these fail to answer the question of how cells arose when there were no cells to produce them. This question is now answered in principle by the proteinoid, in a process so simple that it resembles that of making instant coffee. When hot water is poured onto proteinoid, and the resultant clear hot solution is cooled, millions of microscopic spherules sepa- rate (Fig. 4). These are stable to centrifugation, they have a kind of osmotic property, they can be made gram-negative or gram- positive, they have catalytic powers, they can be produced so that § QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES © es fs : % : ‘ - 3 . : Fig. 4. Proteinoid microspheres. Approximately 2u in diameter. they are motile, they bind polynucleotides as well as dyes, and they also show some selectivity in the passage of molecules through their boundaries (Fig. 5). As Fig. 6 shows, these boundaries are structured. One may in this figure compare a section of a proteinoid microsphere with one of Bacillus cereus under the electron microscope. Experts who are uninformed on these units often guess wrong as to which is which, reportedly because the artificial particle has a thicker bound- ary. In the same figure we see that the artificial boundary is a double layer. This has permitted some broadening of our under- standing of the Danielli model (1935) of the unit membrane of the contemporary cell, especially with regard to the contribution of lipid. In Fig. 7, we observe a cyclic phenomenon which is intrinsic to the units composed of proteinoid. In the first picture are shown microspheres which have, during a week in their liquor, developed buds which in appearance, texture, and tenacity re- Fox: Synthesis of Life 9 @ @® @® : °. £4 ef START i fINUTE 2 MINUTES ce F é ; @ ~ e° x os a 3 MINUTES 4 MINUTES 6 MINUTES & $.. aJ ”. a * % Nd . @ e ba e is ° {> e ./ oe ~ MINUTES 8 MINUTES 9 MINUTES ‘ Fig. 5. Time-lapse study in ultraviolet light of diffusion of polymer outward from microsphere when pH is raised slightly. Experiment per- formed by Mr. R. J. McCauley with Dr. Philip O'B. Montgomery. semble buds on yeast. In the second photomicrograph, the buds have been removed, a phenomenon resulting from heat, electrical, or mechanical shock. These are then stained with Crystal Violet and tranferred to a solution of proteinoid saturated at 37° and 10 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES allowed to cool to 25° over one hour. The buds grow by a kind of heterotrophic process. In the last picture, one can see one of the microspheres with a second generation bud. In this manner, we can visualize an evolution from simple physical processes acting on Fig. 6. Electron micrographs showing section of Bacillus cereus in upper left. Section of proteinoid microsphere in upper right. Lower micrograph displays double layer in boundary of proteinoid microsphere treated with buffer to raise the pH of a suspension. Fox: Synthesis of Life i AOE ie. Fig. 7. Optical micrograph of proteinoid microsphere replicating by budding and heterotrophic growth. a) Microspheres with buds, b) Buds after removal, c) Microspheres which have grown from stained buds, d) Mi- crosphere with second generation bud. simply derived polymers to yield the minimal complexity required for reproduction. While these experiments have not produced a fully contem- porary type of organism, they have shown how a _ proteinaceous microparticle with internally ordered macromolecules, catalytic ac- tivities, and many of the properties of a contemporary cell, includ- ing the ability to participate in a presumably primitive reproductive process can, and could be, spontaneously produced. The necessary geophysical conditions, being found in abundance on the contempo- rary Earth (Fox, 1966), should have earlier been abundant also. This rugged process to the primordial stage can be visualized as having occurred quickly, easily, and often when amino acids with a small proportion of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, or lysine were present. Without vet defining life, we can use this physical model to help describe life. The model suggests that life is a range of associations of unique chemical materials having intrinsic and characteristic physical properties. Many or all of these properties have their 12 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES simple physical counterparts. In the growth of buds removed from microspheres, for example, we see a similarity to the growth of inorganic crystals. But these units are not inorganic crystals; they are composed of organic material which has an array of cata- lytic activities such as to what would be needed biochemically in the evolution of metabolism. We are thus dealing with complex macromolecules, and especially with supramolecular organization or systems. ‘These systems have properties of association, differ- entiation, and other behavior which are simply not to be found at the more rudimentary or molecular level. The model answers in one way how cells could arise in the ab- sence of cells, how enzymes could come into existence in the ab- sence of enzymes to make them, and how macromolecular informa- tion could arise in the absence of nucleic acid. Experiments demonstrating one type of origin of primordial ribonucleic acid have been published from our laboratory. Based on these studies, Carl Woese (1968) has reported experiments constructed to ex- plain the origin of the code between RNA and protein, and with Dr. Waehneldt we also have other reports of selective inter- action of RNA, DNA, and proteinoid (Waehneldt and Fox, 1968). The idea that protein first arose before or with RNA and DNA is not a new suggestion; many theorists, e.g. Lederberg (1961), Thimann (1965), have advanced this conceptual possi- bility in the past. What is a new view is the detailed interpreta- tion of our physical model consistent with that suggestion. Among studies under way are attempts at further contemporiza- tion of the proteinoid microsphere, especially through incorporation of internal mechanisms for synthesis of biopolymer, polyamino acids, and coding polynucleotide. At least two laboratories are studying the potentialities of proteinoids as food. At least two laboratories are studying the relationship of pyrolysis of amino acids to the origin of petroleum. We believe we have seen in the properties of microspheres clues to the study of models of behavior at the most primitive evolutionary level, as in chemotaxis. Some of the data obtained on the proteinoids are being interpreted in a context which is more fundamental than that of the origin of life, the relationship of entropy to general evolution. Needless to say, what has been done so far has helped to discipline plans in the search for extraterrestrial life (Fig. 8). Here we see compari- Fox: Synthesis of Life 13 ~ Fig. 8. “Organized elements” of carbonaceous chondrites (left) and proteinoid microparticles (right). sons of “organized elements’ from a meteorite with proteinoid microparticles. These have been much republished. Among other consequences, this study has focused attention on what the Space Research Committee at the University of Miami has titled simply The Survival of Man. Our space research group 14 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is concerned with identifying the problems and possible solutions of the survival, terrestrial and extraterrestrial, of man as he seem- ingly hurries to his own destruction. - This is a somber note to end on, but not necessarily a pessimistic one. Anyone who has a curiosity about and a reverence for life, I believe, must be con- cerned with how it began and must also be concerned with doing what can be done to insure its continued and internally controlled evolution. In many ways, some of them indirect, study of the synthetic origins of life leads into studies of its maintenance and preservation. LITERATURE CITED Carvin, M. 1962. Communication: from molecules to Mars. Bull. Am. Inst. Biol. Sci., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 29-44. DANIELLI, J. F., AND H. J. Davson. 1935. The permeability of thin films. Jour. Cellular Comp. Physiol., vol. 5, pp. 495-508. Fox, S. W. 1965. FEE oy at OFI 67 V SE VG dl % E89 FE 0 () 0) G 6ST'S O8O'LT S69 TT Ags) V ‘ON loqiefy Ayoyes II 166 an <7 | al Q'S St L’Sé G66 Jl % L66 PF 0) () 0) § GETS POS FI QLT ST 8G SI a ‘ON Ivtusp[O I RIOT “99q “AON ‘po ‘ydasg “ony Aqn{ ounf{ ARI “Idy UOT}RIS ‘yu90 Jod GQ’) UP} SseT— J], ‘SIo}oUNQUGD aIeNbs QOT Jed Joquinu se soovzins o}e][d fF JO asvIoAv WOT Peps1OdaI S19}SAO JO SIOqUNN ‘GOGT Joqutaoaq-[udy ‘epro[y “Aeg eduey, pjO ul “uone}s pur vate Aq “Yas IoysAO ATYJUOS) Glas hae QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 42 “SUO]Y}S [[v 1O0F [k}0} UO paseq UUWIN]OO sIyy UT sesezUs0I0g; — = a ib T0 LGe 6°SS 0'9G 6 GI L0 % PE9'FST 0 0 cS GOT GGG VS P8So°cc 99T OF 60S°SZ S30 T ‘ON s[e}0 J, C6 == = 10 G0 cial 89S L'08 PLT 10 %, OFL FI () () 6 GL PILG OGrS IscTy LLG ial ‘ON esplg Apursy TA 9°GS = 3 IL 10 POF 10S TAG 9°CT ca % LE6 FS 0 0 ral NG L60°F1 6SS‘OL LIS'P LSPS GIS ‘ON osplig AWO-PUN A BIOL “90d “AON ‘po "ydag “ony Aqn{ oun{ KRW ‘Iidy UOT} RIS ‘judo Jad GQ’) ULY} SseT—], “Sie}oWUED aIeNbs COT Jed Jequinu sv ssovjfins o}e[d F JO VSvIOAR LOL] pepso0dar sia}SKO JO SioquUNN “GQBT Joqutsoeq-[udy “eproyy “Avg eduey plo ul ‘uonRs pue voir Aq ‘Jos Jo}shO ATYPUOPY OOS eclalich vale FINUCANE AND CAMPBELL: Ecology of Oysters A3 HyproLocy oF OLp TAMPA Bay IN RELATION TO OYSTER CULTURE The range of salinity in Old Tampa Bay was between 16.3 and 30.3 o/oo but averaged 23.35 o/oo. This average is within the the optimum salinity range of 10.0 to 28.0 0/oo for Crassostrea virginica given by Loosanoff (1965) in Long Island Sound. Salinity was lowest at Oldsmar (Station I) and highest in lower Old Tampa Bay (Fig. 3). Maximum weekly changes were usually less than 2.00 AREA-| AREA-2 STATION | STATION I s STATION IY STATION ¥ STATION Wt ELE es Pay a7. 30 25 20 S15 10 : ° 30. 25 | 20 i =,15 : | 1 i u% | Dee een Racetrack a pena ul sn | ete SP at Peele ee Pa bk ee i aw 5 Corb G8 ABCERMDR eGR AED My 9k Ss 88 Fig. 3. Mean monthly salinity (top) and temperature (bottom) in Old Tampa Bay, Fla. April-December 1965. 0/oo. Further evidence of stability in salinity comes from 24 hour studies completed near Safety Harbor (Station II) in 1962 and 1963 where daily changes of only 0.09 to 1.59 0/00 were recorded ( Kelly and Finucane, unpublished manuscript, 1966, entitled “Diel hydro- graphic observations from Tampa Bay, Florida, November 1962 to December 1963,” on file at Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biologi- cal Laboratory, St. Petersburg Beach, Fla.). This degree of change can be readily tolerated by oysters in Tampa Bay. Ingle and Daw- son (1950) reported values ranging from fresh water to 42.5 0/00 and daily changes as great as 10 0/00 in Apalachicola Bay, Florida, but noted that such marked changes in salinity may impair survival of oysters and quality of the meat. During our study, water temperature ranged from 9.6 C in December to 34.0 C in July, and averaged 25.9 C. In general, the first spattall was at about 25.0 C, but the first mass spatfall at Oldsmar (Station I) and later in the lower bay began usually at a water temperature near 28.0 C. This finding agrees well with spawning temperatures recorded for oysters in other parts of Flor- 44 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ida (Ingle and Dawson, 1953). Along the east coast in Long Island Sound and Chesapeake Bay, spawning has occurred at much lower temperatures ( Loosanoff and Engle, 1950; Nelson, 1928). SURVIVAL AND GROWTH Comparison of counts from seasonal collectors with those from regular weekly collectors at the same stations yielded estimates of mortality. From June 17 to July 15, survival was only 4.6 per cent at Safety Harbor (Station II), compared with 89.9 per cent at Rocky Point (Station IV). Over a 2 month period, June 17 to August 19, survival at these stations was 3.6 and 39.2 per cent, respectively; after 3 months, mortality was over 96 per cent at both stations. In sections of the country where spatfall is light, such high mortality may cause the fishery to fail, but in Old Tampa Bay high mortality among young oysters appears to act advantageously by reducing survivors to a number that may mature rapidly. Mortality of oyster spat is apparently greatest during the first 2 months after settlement and may reach 86 to 100 per cent (Loosa- noff and Engle, 1950). Chances of survival improve with increase in size, although larger oysters are still subject to disease and preda- tion. All of the causes of oyster mortality in Old Tampa Bay are not known but a fungus parasite, Dermocystidium marinum, is preva- lent, and a number of oyster predators are present. Sammy M. Ray, Galveston, Texas (personal communication), found that all oysters (mean length 75 mm) collected in Old Tampa Bay in De- cember 1962 were infected with D. marinum. This pathogen is probably the most dangerous parasite of adult oysters in the waters of the southern states (Galtsoff, 1964). We also observed natural predation on both spat and adult oysters by the crown conch (Melongena corona), the drill (Thais haemastoma floridana), the left-handed whelk (Busycon perversum), the blue crab (Callinec- tes sapidus ), and the stone crab (Menippe mercenaria). Another possible cause of oyster mortality in Tampa Bay is the “oyster leech,” Stylochus inimicus. This parasitic flatworm was abundant on the commercial oyster beds in central and lower Tampa Bay during the summer and fall of 1965. In laboratory ex- periments, as few as three specimens of S. inimicus were found to FINUCANE AND CAMPBELL: Ecology of Oysters A5 be capable of killing and eating an adult oyster within 1 week. The presence of this animal has been reported periodically in Tampa Bay and other Florida estuaries (Ingle and Dawson, 1953). The weekly growth increment at all stations was 2.0 to 2.6 mm during the first month. Shell length averaged 17 mm at Rocky Point after 2 months, and 10 mm at Safety Harbor after 3 months. During these periods spat plates were heavily silted, and the outer plate surfaces showed some evidence of predator browsing which affected the growth and survival of these oysters. After 7 months, the average size of the oysters at Safety Harbor was only about 23 mm due to mortality of the older oysters. This rate of growth would produce a marketable oyster (4 inches) in about 2 years; oysters on cultch apparently grow faster, however, for local oyster- men have recovered shells more than 4 inches long in a single year. Robert M. Ingle, Tallahassee, Florida (personal communica- tion), stated that cultch planted at Rocky Point during a favorable growth period from May until February produced some 5 inch oysters. In general, the average growth of oysters in Old Tampa Bay appeared to be less than that reported by Ingle and Dawson (1952) for oysters grown on cultch in Apalachicola Bay. They re- corded a harvest of marketable oysters in about 18 months. In contrast, about 48 months are required to produce a 4 inch oyster in Long Island Sound (Churchill, 1921). LITERATURE CITED Baur, L. M. 1964. Final report of Maryland oyster observations for 1964. Chesapeake Biol. Lab. Bull., no. 2, 6 pp. Butter, P. A. 1954. Selective setting of oyster larvae on artificial cultch. Proc. Nat. Shellfish Assn., vol. 45, pp. 95-102. 1965. Reaction of some estuarine mollusks to environmental factors. Health Educ. Welfare Dep., U.S. Public Health Serv. Publ. 999-WP-25. In Biological problems in water pollution, 3rd Seminar, 1962, pp. 92- 104. CHURCHILL, E. P., JR. 1921. The oyster and the oyster industry of the Atlantic and Gulf Coast. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1919, pp. 1-51. Cooxe, C. W. 1945. Geology of Florida. Florida Geol. Serv., Geol. Bull. no. 29, 339 pp. Dawson, C. E., Jr. 1953. A survey of the Tampa Bay area. Florida Bd. Conserv., tech. ser., no. 8, 39 pp. 46 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ga.tsorF, P. S. 1964. The American oyster Crassostrea virginica Gmelin. US. Fish. Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. vol. 64, 480 pp. GoovELL, H. G., anp D. S. Gorstinr. 1961. A sedimentologic study of Tampa Bay, Florida. Internat. Geol. Congr., XXI Sess., Norden, Den- mark, 1960, pp. 75-88. INGLE, R. M., anp C. E. Dawson, Jr. 1950. Variation in salinity and its relation to the Florida oyster. Salinity variations in Apalachicola Bay. Proc. Gulf & Carib. Fish. Inst., 3rd Ann. Sess., pp. 35-42. . 1952. Growth of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin), in Florida waters. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf & Carib., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 393-404. . 1953. A survey of Apalachicola Bay. Florida Bd. Consery., tech. ser., now LO Sopp: LoosaNorr, V. L. 1965. The American or eastern oyster. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Circ. 205, 36 pp. LoosaNnorrF, V. L., AND J. B. ENGLE. 1950. Spawning and setting of oysters in Long Island Sound in 1937, and discussion of the method for predicting the intensity and time of oyster setting. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull., vol. 49, pp. 217-255. Nextson, T. C. 1928. Relation of spawning of oysters to temperature. Ecology, no. 9, pp. 145-154. Ouson, F. C. W., AnD J. B. Morritt, Jr. 1955. Literature survey of the Tampa Bay area. Oceanogr. Inst. Florida State Univ., 66 pp. Wetcu, E. 1965. Summary of Florida commercial marine landings, 1964. Mar. Fish. Res. Rep. to Florida Bd. Conserv., 77 pp. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, St. Pet- ersburg Beach, Florida 33706. Contribution No. 38. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(1) 1968(1969 ) Capture of a Tagged Ridley Turtle DonALD E.. SWEAT On December 10, 1966, the shrimp boat Miss Marathon netted a ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea kempii) between the Mar- quesas Keys and the Dry Tortugas. The turtle bore a small metal tag on the posterior edge of the left front flipper which read, “Premio por Devolucion, Remitir: Dir. Gral. de Pesca, México, D. F.” on one side and “A 1071” on the other side. The turtle was brought to a Marathon fish house on December 12, 1966, and the Florida Board of Conservation was notified. All pertinent data were sent to the proper Mexican authorities and the turtle was put in the Key West Municipal Aquarium for further observation. Dr. Archie Carr of the University of Florida was also notified, and he gave the following pertinent information. The turtle, a female, was released by Mexican fisheries officers on May 12, 1966, between Barra de las Calabazas and Cachimba, Tamaulipas (a spot about 90 miles north of Tampico), Mexico. Its carapace measured 65 cm when released. The turtle was captured on December 10, 1966, after 212 days at liberty... During this time its carapace length had increased by 4 cm (69 cm at capture) and it had traversed approximately 955 miles, if travel was in a straight line. The tagging and release of this turtle is but a small part of the current Mexican research on sea turtles. As part of the Pro- grama Nacional de Marcado de Tortugas Marinas ( Montoya, 1966) in Mexico, 285 ridley turtles were tagged and released during the months of April through July 1966 (Chavez, 1966). Recovery data on 10 of these 285 turtles were published in January of this year (Chavez, 1967). Four of these first 10 recoveries were made off the Mexican coast, two others were taken off the Texas coast, and four from Louisiana waters. To my knowledge, this capture represents the first of this group of tagged turtles taken in Florida waters. LITERATURE CITED Cuavez, H. 1966. Propositos y finalidades. Bol. Progr. Nac. Marc. Tortugas Mar., Mexico, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-16. 48 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ——. 1967. Nota preliminar sobre la recaptura de ejemplares marcados de tortuga lora, Lepidochelys olivacea kempii. Bol. Progr. Nac. Marc. Tortugas Mar., México, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 1-5. Montoya, A. E. 1966. Programa nacional de marcado de tortugas marinas. Inst. Nac. Invest. Biol-Pesq., México, pp. 1-39. Florida Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory, St. Peters- burg, Florida. Contribution No. 1138. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(1) 1968( 1969 ) Returns of Tagged Pen-Reared Green Turtles Ross WITHAM AND ARCHIE CARR OnE of the unsolved puzzles in the natural history of sea turtles is the disappearance of the young during the year after hatching. This gap not only hinders studies of the life cycle of the species but also prevents evaluation of the success of restoration projects involving the transplantation of young turtles and the reduction of predation upon the early stages. Hatchling predators are of two kinds: those that attack the eggs and young on shore and those that intercept the hatchlings after they enter the sea. The former can be circumvented by fencing or careful policing of sites of heavy nesting, or by moving eggs to protected hatcheries. For some time it has seemed possible that survival might be further augmented by rearing the young turtles to sizes at which such smaller predators as gulls, robalo, and jackfish would be unable to plague them in the water. At the same time, however, it has appeared possible that this move might actually decrease survival by blocking normal behavioral and ecologic development and making the young turtle unfit to go through its regular life cycle. Within recent months a few data suggesting that this is not true have accumulated. Two relevant cases are reported below. Ninety-eight green turtles sent to Florida from the hatchery of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation at Tortuguero, Costa Rica were kept for one year in concrete tanks at the House of Refuge Museum at Stuart. These were released into the Indian River on November 10, 1964. Each was tagged with a Monel poultry-wing tag, fastened to the back edge of the right front flipper near the body. Two of these turtles have now been re- covered. The first was caught by Mr. Jack A. Scammell on January 15, 1965, after 64 days of freedom, in the Indian River about seven miles north of the release point. Size and weight were not determined. The second turtle was recovered by Mr. Vincent Russell off Sandy Cay, Grand Bahama Island, on May 13, 1967, after having been at large for 30 months. It had traveled at least 65 nautical miles, and had crossed the Gulf Stream. It weighed 14 pounds (6350 grams) when retaken; the length was not reported. At the time this turtle was released the carapace length was 187 mm, 50 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and although it was not weighed, two other turtles with carapace lengths of 184 mm, released at the same time, weighed 810 and 850 grams (1.78 and 1.87 pounds). Thus, weight-gain in the re- captured turtle during the 30 months of free life was about 12 pounds (5500 grams). As improved tagging techniques are developed more yearlings will be tagged and released, in the hope of substantiating this bit of evidence that pen-reared turtles may be able to adapt to the normal ecologic regimen of the species. Research and restoration work was supported by the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, and the Carib- bean Conservation Corporation. Florida Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory, St. Peters- burg, Florida; Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(1) 1968( 1969 ) A Review of Anolis angusticeps in the West Indies ALBERT SCHWARTZ AND RICHARD THOMAS In 1856 Hallowell described Anolis angusticeps from Cienfue- gos, Las Villas Province, Cuba. In 1894 a closely related species, Anolis oligaspis Cope, was named from New Providence Island, Bahamas. These two species were ultimately combined (Barbour, 1937, p. 128) as two subspecies of A. angusticeps, the nominate form occurring on Cuba and the Isla de Pinos, and A. a. oligaspis in the Bahamas (New Providence, Andros, Long islands). The Bahaman subspecies has generally been regarded as rare and has been much less well represented in collections than A. a. angustt- ceps. Two additional subspecies have more recently been named, A. a. chickcharneyi Oliver (1948) from South Bimini island in the northwestern Bahamas, and A. a. paternus Hardy (1967) from the Isla de Pinos. Hardy (1967) summarized the pertinent data on all specimens of A. angusticeps available to him but made little comment on the validity of A. a. chickcharneyi. Since we have had considerably more experience in the Bahamas with A. angusti- ceps than previous workers, since the senior author collected the species in Cuba and the Isla de Pinos (under National Science Foundation grants G-3865 and G-6252), and especially since we have made several pertinent observations on the habits of this supposedly rare species, we have attempted to review the accumu- lated data on the variation and habits of Anolis angusticeps. We have studied 276 specimens of A. angusticeps. Many of the Bahaman specimens are in the Albert Schwartz Field Series (ASFS); the balance of the lizards have been borrowed from the following institutions: Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel- phia (ANSP), American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), Carnegie Museum (CM), Museo y Biblioteca de Zoologia de la Habana (MBZH), Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ), Mu- seum of Zoology, University of Michigan (UMMZ), University of Florida collections (UF/FSM), United States National Museum (USNM), and the Instituto de Biologia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba (IB). We wish to thank the following persons in charge of these collections: James Boehlke, Edmond V. Malnate, Charles M. Bogert, George W. Foley, Neil D. Richmond, Miguel Jaume, Clarence J. McCoy, Jr., Ernest E. Williams, Walter Auffenberg, 52 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lewis D. Ober, Charles F. Walker, Doris M. Cochran, James A. Peters, and Orlando H. Garrido. In the field we have had the assistance of Edwin B. Erickson, John R. Feick, William H. Gehr- mann, Jr., Ronald F. Klinikowski, David C. Leber, James D. Small- wood, Barton L. Smith, Willard M. Stitzell, and George R. Zug, whose help in collecting these anoles in Cuba, the Isla de Pinos, and the Bahamas is gratefully acknowledged. We are especially fortunate in having Mr. Malnate check various data for us on the holotypes of A. angusticeps and A. oligaspis, both of which are in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. We have ex- amined the holotypes of A. a. chickcharneyi and A. a. paternus ourselves. The large series of A. angusticeps taken by Thomas W. Schoener on South Bimini and now in the Museum of Compara- tive Zoology has added materially to the quantity of Bahaman specimens. Hardy (1967) used five characters in his discussions of varia- tion in A. angusticeps. These are 1) presence or absence of ven- tral keeling; 2) number of scales in the first and tenth caudal ver- ticils; 3) number of scales between the seventh canthals (seventh canthals as counted by Oliver, 1948, but first canthal as counted by us, beginning at the anterior margin of the orbit); 4) number of postmental scales; and 5) color. We found other counts useful for differentiation of subspecies in other anoles, and accordingly we have taken data on the number of loreals on one side, the minimal number of scales separating the supraorbital semicircles, the number of scales between the supraorbital semicircles and the interparietal on each side (written as a fraction, i.e., 1/1), number of fourth toe lamellae on phalanges II and III, presence or absence of sculpture on head scales, and presence or absence of keeling on the scales on the anterior face of the thigh. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT Anolis angusticeps angusticeps Hallowell, 1856 Anolis augusticeps (sic) Hallowell, 1856, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 228 (Cienfuegos, Las Villas Province, Cuba; holotype ANSP 7789). Definition. A subspecies of A. angusticeps characterized by smooth ventral scales, modally 7 scales between first canthals, modally one row of scales between supraorbital semicircles, median SCHWARTZ AND THoMaAs: Review of Anolis 53 dorsal scales in first caudal verticil moderate in number, postmen- tal scales modally 4, femoral scales variably keeled or smooth, head scales usually smooth in males, sinuously rugose in females, and ventral color white to whitish, not yellow. Distribution. Cuba; intergrades between A. a. angusticeps and A. a. paternus known from five localities in Pinar del Rio Province in western Cuba (Fig. 1). Size. Largest male (UMMZ 70046, vicinity of Soledad, Las Villas Province) 52 mm snout-vent length; largest female (MCZ 11146, Soledad, Las Villas Province ) 43 mm. Variation. The sample of 107 A. a. angusticeps may be divided into three separate groups for further discussion: 1) Pinar del Rio Province (west), 2) Habana-Matanzas-Las Villas provinces (cen- tral), 3) Camagiiey-Oriente provinces (east). When the entire lot of Cuban material ‘is so divided, certain trends in scalation, especially in the arrangement of the head scales, are shown. The number of scales between the first canthals varies from 3 to 10. The three samples have the following ranges, means and modes: 1) 3-9; mean 6.4, mode 6; 2) 5-10; mean 6.8, mode 7; 3) 5-9; mean 7.2, mode 7. There is an increase in mean number of snout scales between the first canthals from west to east, with the highest value in the Camagiiey-Oriente sample. The low mean in Pinar del Rio reflects the relationships of the western sample with A. a. paternus of the Isla de Pinos. The number of loreals varies between 14 and 41, with no ob- vious tendencies toward higher or lower numbers in any region. Means are 25.2 (Pinar del Rio), 25.3 (Habana-Matanzas-Las Villas), and 25.0 (Camagiiey-Oriente ). All three samples of A. a. angusticeps have the supraorbital semicircles modally separated by one row of scales; this condition occurs in 17 of 33 Pinar del Rio lizards, 30 of 45 lizards from Habana-Matanzas-Las Villas, and 23 of 27 lizards from Camagiiey- Oriente. On the other hand, the semicircles are in contact in some specimens, the number in the three samples being 14 in the west, 13 in the central sample and 4 in the eastern sample. Two lizards in both the Pinar del Rio and the Habana-Matanzas- Las Villas samples have the semicircles separated by two scales; no Camagiiey-Oriente lizard has this condition. The highest inci- dence of the non-modal condition of semicircles in contact occurs QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 54 "Ind90 snusajod ‘Dy pure sdady4snsuD ‘Dy UseMj}oq BUI[IOY [VUOA UI o}yVIPEUliezUL SUSUTOAdS o1OYA sot] Loo] dJVOIPUL BOUTAOIG OLY [ep euld url so] suely ayy M PeEpHypoul YIM Sepotto pros ‘snusayod “p) *Y So[suURI pros “pourutexe useq aavy sdaoysnsup ‘Dp "YW JO susuttoeds aoUAYA\ SUONL}S 9}VOIPUI sopoIIO PI[OS ‘souTg 9p IST oy} pur eqny jo dep ‘T ‘siyT Ot Ol SCHWARTZ AND THoMas: Review of Anolis in the western Pinar del Rio sample; as in the case of the number of scales across the snout between the first canthals, the high incidence of semicircles in contact in Pinar del Rio reflects the relationship of A. a. paternus to the Pinar del Rio sample. A. a. paternus modally has the semicircles in contact. The number of scales between the interparietal and the supra- orbital semicircles varies between 0/0 and 2/2, with asymmetrical conditions (0/1, 1/2) also occurring. The mode is strongly 1/1 in all samples. The number of supraorbital scales in contact with the interparietal is modally 0/0 in all samples, with counts of 0/1, 1/1, 1/2, and 2/2 also encountered. None of these latter cate- gories closely approaches the frequency of 0/0 in any sample. Number of fourth toe lamellae on phalanges IJ and III varies between 14 and 22, with means of 17.6 in the west and east, and 17.4 in the central sample. No geographical trend is present. Scales in the median dorsal row in the first caudal verticil range from 4 to 7, with means of 5.3 in the west and central lizards, and 5.4 in the Camagiiey-Oriente sample. Tenth verticil scales vary between 3 and 6, with means of 4.4 in the western and eastern samples and 4.1 in the central sample. Number of postmental scales varies geographically. The total variation in this character is 3 to 8; the means, from west to east are 5.7, 5.1 and 4.7, showing a distinct reduction of number of postmentals from west to east. The modal number is 6 in the Pinar del Rio lizards and 4 in the Camagitiey-Oriente region; the central sample is bimodal, with equal numbers of lizards having 4 and 6 postmentals, and an almost equal number of lizards having 5 postmentals. From the above data the west-east cline in some scale charac- ters (snout scales between first canthals, contact of supraorbital semicircles, number of postmental scales) is clearly demonstrated. The influence of A. a. paternus on the Pinar del Rio lizards (or, preferably, the intermediate nature of the Pinar del Rio lizards between the subspecies angusticeps and paternus) is reflected in the counts and arrangement of the head scales in the western sample. The ventral scales in some Pinar del Rio lizards will be noted below. The dewlap color in A. a. angusticeps is variable but apparently not correlated with geography. The basic color is pale orange or 56 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES yellowish orange (peach, apricot; Maerz and Paul, 1950, Pl. 10 D 7, is a good reference, recorded for a specimen from Las Villas). A male from Pinar del Rio had the dewlap yellow, one from the Sierra de Trinidad in Las Villas Province had the dewlap orange, and another male from Trinidad was recorded as having the dew- lap pale orange (Pl. 2 A 10). Ruibal (1964, p. 488) reported _ that the dewlap color of Cuban examples was peach (yellow-pink ), and Collette (1961, p. 139) likewise considered the dewlap peach- colored. Special mention is necessary of two specimens (IB 864-65) from Cayo Cantiles in the Archipielago de los Canarreos, the string of islands and cays which extends eastward from Punta del Este on the eastern coast of the Isla de Pinos. These two male lizards, which might most properly be expected to represent the Isla de Pinos subspecies paternus, are assignable to the Cuban A. a. angusticeps. Both have the hindlimb and ventral scales smooth. Such a peculiarity of distribution suggests that A. an- gusticeps may have reached the Archipiélago de los Canarreos from mainland Cuba rather than serially from the Isla de Pinos to the west. Additional specimens from this island chain are greatly to be desired; it is even possible that Archipiélago A. angusticeps will ultimately be shown to be a distinctive subspecies restricted to that region. Several other reptiles (Leiocephalus cubensis, Dromicus andreae) have distinctive subspecies in the Canarreos, and A. angusticeps may follow suit. Specimens examined. Cuba, Pinar del Rio Prov., Cabo de San Antonio, 1 (USNM 51847); north shore, Ensenada de Corrientes, 45 km W Cayuco, 1 (AMNH 81343); Ensenada de Corrientes, 1 (MCZ 55551); Las Martinas, 1 (MCZ 50154); San Waldo, 4 km N Cortés, 1 (IB 1302); Sierra de Guane, 2 (MCZ 11149-50); 3.5 km NE Guane, 1 (AMNH 81344); Luis Lazo, 1 (MCZ 12220): near Vinales, 2 (MCZ 55568-69); pinelands near Vinales, 1 (IB 1060); San Vicente, 6 (AMNH 76510-11, AMNH 78233, AMNH 81342-43, AMNH 81345); 5.6 mi. NW San Vicente, 1 (AMNH 78231); Cueva del Cable, San Vicente, 2 (AMNH 78232, AMNH 78437); San Diego de los Banos, 2 (AMNH_ 58913-14); 1 km N Herradura, 8 (MCZ 59235-42); Rangel, 1 (AMNH 83089); Rio Santa Cruz (not mapped), 1 (USNM 54416); Habana Prov., Marianao, 22 (USNM 160915-23, USNM 160925-37): Bosque de la Habana, 1 (USNM 160924); Cueva de Cotilla, 9 km SW San José de las Lajas, 1 (AMNH 76512); Giines, 1 (AMNH 46520); Cueva de Rincén de Guanabo, 2 mi. E Playa de Guanabo, 1 (AMNH 96498); Sitio Perdido (not mapped), 1 (USNM 75816); Cayo Cantiles, Archipiélago de los Canarreos, 2 (IB 864-65); Matanzas Prov., Matanzas, SCHWARTZ AND THQMAs: Review of Anolis 57 1 (UMMZ 73924); Las Villas Prov., 5 km SE Paso Caballo, 1 (AMNH 78234): Limones, Cienfuegos, 2 (MCZ 42317-18); Soledad, 2 (MCZ 11146, MCZ 92102): vicinity of Soledad, 1 (UMMZ 70064); Buenos Aires, Sierra de Trinidad, 1 (MCZ 42578); Guajimico, 16 mi. SE Soledad, 1 (AMNH 78238); Trinidad, 3 (AMNH 78235-36, AMNH 81347); 6 km W Trinidad, 1 (MCZ 59254); 1.8 mi. S Topes de Collantes, 1 (AMNH 96499); Cayo de Lanzanillo, 1 (IB 882); cliffs at San José del Lago, 1 (AMNH 78237); Sierra de Jatibonico, 1 (MCZ 7956); Camagiiey Prov., Los Paredones, Sierra de Cubitas, 1 (MCZ 73953); Rio Jigiiey, between Esmeralda and Jaronu, 1 (MCZ 59256); 20 km W Camagiiey, 2 (AMNH 81322, AMNH 83608): Finca San Pablo, ca. 15 km SW Camagiiey, 2 (MCZ 59257-58); Finca Santa Teresa, 9 km W Camagiiey, 4 (MCZ 59244, MCZ 59246-47, MCZ 59262); Granja San Lucas, 9 km W Camagitey, 1 (IB 1208); Playa Santa Lucia, 1 (AMNH 83609); 15 km S Playa Santa Lucia, 3 (MCZ 59259-61 ); Marti, 1 (UMMZ 70992); Oriente Prov., Birama, 32 km SW Victoria de las Tunas, 2 (MCZ 59251-52): near San Ramon, west of Campechuela, 3 (MCZ 59248-50 ); coast south of Pico Turquino, 1 (MCZ 42469); Playa Juragua, 3.7 mi. E Siboney, 1 (AMNH 96500); upper Rio Ovando, 1 (MCZ 52526); La Florida, Baracoa, 1 (IB 883); ca. 9 km SE Moa, + 1000 feet, 1 (MCZ 59253); Cuchillas de Guajimero (not mapped), 1 (MCZ 42558): specimens with no locality data other than Cuba, 6 (ANSP 7997, AMNH 46512, AMNH 46563-65, USNM 83933); data for holotype of A. a. angusticeps (ANSP 7789 ) incorporated into analysis. Anolis angusticeps paternus Hardy, 1967 Anolis angusticeps paternus Hardy, 1967, Carib. Jour. Sci., 6 (1-2), p. 25 (vicinity of Nueva Gerona, Habana Province, Isla de Pinos: holotype USNM 142156). Definition. A subspecies of A. angusticeps characterized by keeled ventral scales, modally 6 scales between first canthals, modally supraorbital semicircles in contact, median dorsal scales in first caudal verticil low in number, postmentals modally 6, fe- moral scales keeled, head scales smooth to weakly sinuously rugose in males, sinuously rugose in females, and ventral color yellow. Distribution. Isla de Pinos, where known only from the north- ern two-thirds of the island, north of the Ciénaga de Lanier; specimens intermediate between A. a. paternus and A. a. angus- ticeps in Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba ( Fig. 1). Size. Largest male (AMNH 81326) 49 mm snout-vent length: largest females (AMNH 81334, USNM 142171, MCZ 11143) 38 mm. Variation. The sample of 49 A. a. paternus is constant in 58 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES several distinctive features of the subspecies, namely the keeled ventral scales and keeled scales on the anterior face of the thigh. The thigh keeling may be weak in some specimens, but it is al- ways present. The number of scales between the first canthals varies between 3 and 8 (mean 6.1, mode 6), and the loreals range from 15-37 (mean 27.9). The supraorbital semicircles are more often in contact than not (55.1 per cent). There are most often 1/1 scales between the interparietal and the semicircles (22 individuals) but an almost equal number (17 lizards) have 0/0 scales (= interparietal in contact with semicircles on both sides ) in this position. Counts of 0/1, 1/1, 1/2, 2/2, 2/0, and 3/1 also are found, with 1/2 having the highest frequency of these. Fourth toe subdigital scales vary from 15 to 22 (mean 18.8). Median dorsal scales in the first caudal verticil range from 4 to 7 (mean 4.6) and in the tenth caudal verticil are either 4 or 5 (mean 4.1). Postmentals vary between 5 and 8 (mean 6.2, mode 6). Hardy has described the distinguishing features of A. a. pater- nus and our examination of the material agrees completely with his diagnosis. Field notes on series collected by the senior author likewise confirm the presence of the yellow ventral color, which may be very bright in intensity. The dewlap is variable, from pale pink (PI. 1 B 10) to pale orange. Discussion. A. a. paternus is obviously a derivative of the western populations of A. a. angusticeps, as Hardy pointed out. Ventral keeling occurs in some A. a. angusticeps from Pinar del Rio Province (specimens from San Waldo, Vinales, San Vicente, Herradura, and the vicinity of Guane), with the highest incidence of keeling at the latter two localities. The relationships of the Isla de Pinos herpetofauna to that of Pinar del Rio have been pointed out on several previous occasions, and the situation with A. a. paternus reinforces the closeness of the fauna of these two geographical regions. In the discussion of variation in A. da. angus- ticeps we have pointed out that several features of scutellation are clinal in nature, with the Pinar del Rio populations showing affinities with A. a. paternus. Aside from the differences in ventral keeling and ventral color, the differences between the Cuban and Isla de Pinos subspecies are modal as are the scale distinctions in many subspecies of anoles. The large number of specimens of A. a. paternus in contrast SCHWARTZ AND THOMAS: Review of Anolis 59 to the relatively smaller number from all of Cuba intimates that the lizard is more common in the Isla de Pinos. This was indeed the experience of the senior author, who encountered far more A. a. paternus on the Isla than on Cuba itself. Specimens examined. Isla de Pinos: Nueva Gerona, 24 (USNM 27921-23, USNM 142156-73, UMMZ 60238, MCZ 11147-48); pinelands at Santa Barbara, 2 (MBZH 33); just W Nueva Gerona, east base Sierra de Casas, 17 (AMNH 81323-26, AMNH 81328-40); 8.8 mi. SSW Nueva Gerona, 1 (AMNH 81327); Santa Fé, 1 (USNM 160914); Los Indios, 1 (MCZ 11143). Anolis angusticeps oligaspis Cope, 1894 Anolis oligaspis Cope, 1894, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 430 (New Providence Island, Bahama Islands; holotype ANSP 26119). Anolis angusticeps chickcharneyi Oliver, 1948, Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1383:2 (western end of South Bimini Island, Bahama _ Islands; holotype AMNH 68620). Definition. A subspecies of A. angusticeps characterized by usually smooth ventral scales, modally 9 scales between first can- thals, modally one row of scales between supraorbital semicircles, median dorsal scales in first caudal verticil high in number, post- mental scales modally 6, femoral scales usually smooth but some- times keeled, head scales usually smooth in both sexes, and ven- tral color white, not yellow. Distribution. Islands of the Great Bahama Bank; specimens examined from North and South Bimini, Andros (including Man- grove Cay), Berry Islands (Frazers Hog Cay), New Providence, Eleuthera, Great Exuma, Long Island and Cat Island; the species has not previously been reported from the Berry Islands nor Great Exuma (Fig. 2). Size. Largest males (AMNH 115617-VV-2515, Eleuthera; MCZ 93340, South Bimini) 53 mm snout-vent length; largest female (MCZ 93352, South Bimini) 47 mm. Variation. Considering the entire sample of A. a. oligaspis first, the snout scales between the first canthals vary between 6 and 12, the number of loreals between 21 and 44, the supraorbital semicircles are almost always (94 of 113 lizards) separated by one row of scales, modally there are 1/1 scales between the inter- parietal and the semicircles, and 0/0 supraorbitals in contact with the interparietal, fourth toe subdigital lamellae vary between 15 and 22, first caudal verticil median dorsal scales range from 5 to 60 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fig. 2. Map of the Bahama Islands. Solid circles indicate stations whence A. a. oligaspis has been examined. Individual localities on New Providence and the Bimini Islands have not been plotted. 9, tenth caudal verticil median dorsals vary from 4 to 6, and post- mentals are 4 to 8. All Bahaman lizards have been separated into five samples on the basis of geography and for convenience of discussion; these samples are 1) North and South Bimini, the sample is composed of South Bimini lizards with one exception; 2) Andros and the Berry Islands; 3) New Providence; 4) Great Exuma, Long, Cat; 5) Eleuthera. The above survey of the characteristics of A. a. oligaspis can be further broken down on the basis of these samples; such a procedure is necessary to determine the status of A. d. chickcharneyi. Means of snout scales between the first canthal scales vary from 8.1 (New Providence) to 9.3 (Andros, Eleuthera), with Bimini lizards having a mean of 8.4. Modes of snout scales are 7 (New Providence), 8 (bimode on Andros) or 9 ( Bimini, Andros bimode, Great Exuma, Eleuthera). The Andros sample (range SCHWARTZ AND THOMAS: Review of Anolis 61 7-12) includes the total range for this scale character in the entire Bahaman lot, and other samples lack only one or the other ex- treme. Mean number of loreals varies from 28.9 (Bimini) to 33.9 (Eleuthera). The supraorbital semicircles are almost always sepa- rated by one row of scales; exceptions are supraorbitals in contact (13 Bimini, two Andros, two New Providence including the holo- type, two Great Exuma); the only specimen from Cat Island and one from South Bimini have the semicircles separated by 2 scales. The scales between the interparietal and the supraorbital semi- circles usually are 1/1 (modal condition in Bimini, Andros, Great Exuma), but on New Providence, the nine specimens are evenly divided between the 1/1, 1/2, 2/2 categories and there is thus no mode; on Eleuthera the mode is 2/2 (six specimens) with two lizards having 1/1 and one lizard 1/2. The number of supraorbitals contacting the interparietal is usually 0/0 (only condition observed on New Providence and Eleuthera ); variants are 0/1 (three lizards), 1/1 (four), 2/2 (two) on Bimini, 0/1 (one) on Andros, 0/1 (one) on Great Exuma. Fourth toe subdigital lamellae means vary from 18.2 ( Bimini) to 19.6 (Great Exuma). Scales in the first caudal verticil have means from 5.5 (New Providence) to 6.3 (Andros) with Bimini lizards having a mean of 5.8. Means of scales in the tenth caudal verticil range from 4.7 (Great Exuma) to 5.1 (Andros). Postmentals vary in mean from 4.7 on Bimini to 6.2 on Eleu- thera, with New Providence intermediate (5.4). The modal num- ber of postmentals is six in all populations except that on Bimini, with a mode of 4. The recognition of A. c. chickcharneyi depends (Oliver, 1948 ) on four characters: 1) six to eight scales between the first (= seventh sensu Oliver) canthals, 2) 24 to 32 loreals, a number intermediate between 17 to 23 in oligaspis and 35 to 38 in angus- ticeps, 3) 34 to 36 lamellae on the fourth toe (a number inter- mediate between 33 or 34 in angusticeps and 36 to 40 in oligaspis ), and 4) 4 postmentals (in contrast to 4 to 6 in angusticeps and 6 in oligaspis). We have not taken total lamellar counts on the fourth toe. There is no doubt that A. a. oligaspis differs (at least modally) from A. a. angusticeps; the status of A. a. chickcharneyi 62 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in relation to A. a. oligaspis is in question. Therefore, there is no purpose in comparing A. a. chickcharneyi with A. a. angusticeps, and we confine our comparisons of the Bimini populations with those from elsewhere in the Bahamas. Oliver was hampered in his comparisons by having very little material for comparison with his five Bimini lizards; he examined three specimens of - a. angus- ticeps and two specimens of A. a. oligaspis. Although the number of snout scales between the first canthals is not as Oliver stated (7 to 11 rather than 6 to 8), the Bimini sample does average low (8.5) in this scale feature. However, Bimini lizards are intermediate in mean number of snout scales between 8.1 (New Providence topotypes of oligaspis) and _ all other Bahaman samples (means of 9.0 to 9.3). The modal number (9) of snout scales on Bimini occurs as a bimode on Andros (8 or 9) and is also intermediate between the low mode of 7 (New Providence ) and 9 (Eleuthera, Great Exuma). Bimini lizards average less (28.9) loreals than any other popu- lation of oligaspis (32.1 to 33.9); the range of the Bimini loreal counts (22 to 34) is completely embraced by those of oligaspis from Andros (22 to 40), Great Exuma (21 to 44) and practically included by those from New Providence ( 24 to 37). Fourth toe subdigital lamellae on phalanges II and III average less for the Bimini sample (18.2; range 16-21), with means for other samples varying between 18.3 (Eleuthera) and 19.6 (Great Exuma). The combined ranges of fourth toe lamellae of popula- tions other than Bimini are 15-22, so that the counts on Bimini are included within the balance of the counts for oligaspis. The Bimini sample is the only one which has 4 postmentals as the modal condition; all others have 6 postmentals modally. The Bimini mean of this character (4.7) is coordinately low com- pared with those of other samples (5.4 on New Providence to 6.2 on Eleuthera ). In summary, we feel that the only claim to recognition for A. a. chickcharneyi is the low number of postmentals. Although both the mean and mode are low in the Bimini lizards, the range of variation of “chickcharneyi’ is enclosed by that of A. a. angus- ticeps and A. a. oligaspis, and virtually so by A. a. paternus. As far as we can determine, there are no chromatic differences be- tween A. angusticeps from Bimini and elsewhere in the Bahamas. SCHWARTZ AND THOMAS: Review of Anolis 63 Acceptance of A. a. chickcharneyi might necessitate the naming of at least one other Bahaman population, as will be discussed below, and this is a course which we are not prepared to take at this time. Considering the variation in the various samples (some admittedly small) of A. a. oligaspis, we feel that A. a. chickcharneyi does not merit recognition. Ventral keeling in A. a. oligaspis is usually absent, but Hardy (1967, p. 27) noted the occurrence of keeling in a specimen from Bimini. In addition to Bimini, specimens with keeled ventrals were encountered on lizards from Andros (one with weak keeling ) and Eleuthera (five of nine specimens with keeling). Keeling of the scales on the anterior face of the thigh is even more prevalent in the Bahamas; 13 specimens from Bimini, six from Andros, two from the Berry Islands, two from New Providence, one from Eleu- thera, five from Great Exuma, and three from Long have some degree of keeling of the scales on the anterior face of the thigh. Considering all of the above information, the lizards from Eleu- thera are unique among A. a. oligaspis in that they modally have 2/2 scales between the semicircles and the interparietal (2/2 occurs only as a minor variant in all other samples) and that they in- clude a high number of individuals with keeled ventral scales. Eleuthera oligaspis also have a high mean number of scales be- tween the first canthals (9.3, which is also the mean on Andros), the highest mean (33.9) number of loreals, always have the semi- circles separated by one row of scales (a feature which is not constant in any other sample of A. angusticeps throughout its range), and have the highest mean (6.2) of postmental scales. Increasing familiarity with the Bahaman herpetofauna makes it clear that reptiles on Eleuthera have a strong tendency to differ from their relatives elsewhere in the Bahamas. In two instances (Sphaerodactylus decoratus, Thomas and Schwartz, 1966; Anolis distichus Schwartz, 1968a) the Eleuthera populations have reached a level of subspecific difference from the balance of the Bahaman populations. If we accept A. a. chickcharneyi as a valid subspecies, we would be reluctant to leave the Eleuthera A. angusticeps unnamed. Eleuthera lizards differ more from A. a. oligaspis than do Bimini lizards. However, the small series of A. angusticeps from Eleu- 64 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES thera causes us to be circumspect; we regard all Bahaman popula- tions as A. a. oligaspis. Comparisons: A. a. oligaspis differs from A. a. angusticeps and A. a. paternus in several scale characters. The higher number of snout scales between the first canthals (3-10 in angusticeps, 3-8 in paternus, 7-12 in oligaspis), and the greater number of scales in the first caudal verticil (4-7 in angusticeps and paternus, with means by area from 4.6-5.4; 5-9 in oligaspis with means by island between 5.5 and 6.3) are distinctive. The usually smooth head scales in both sexes of oligaspis serve also to distinguish the subspecies from both angusticeps and paternus. Dorsal color and pattern of A. a. oligaspis is variable. Notes taken on two living specimens will serve to demonstrate this varia- bility; 1) ASFS V7241, female, dorsal ground color gray with a series of transverse black markings in the style of crossbars but only irregularly so; a pair of pale gray dorsolateral lines; posterior dorsum suffused with rich wood brown; tail banded gray and black; 2) ASFS V6803, female, dorsal ground color brown with yellow longitudinal striae on flanks superimposed on brown bars on a gray ground; color when caught gray with dark mottlings. Males tend to lack the dorsolateral lines ascribed to the females noted above, but in some color phases males have these lines. In some phases, there is also a black, butterfly-shaped lumbar spot. Dewlaps of A. a. oligaspis have been recorded in life as Pl. 10 C 6 (pale peach) on Great Exuma, PI. 2 A 10 (peach) iiagamsouth Bimini, and Pl. 9 B 7 and 9 C 7 (dark peach) on South Bimini. Although there is no evidence that A. a. oligaspis shows variation in dewlap color comparable to that of A. a. angusticeps, our data for the Bahaman subspecies are too limited to be conclusive. Specimens examined. Bahama Islands, North Bimini, Alicetown, 1 (MCZ 46066): South Bimini, 1 mi. S Alicetown (North Bimini), 6 (UF/FSM 16602-07); west end, 9 (ASFS V2448, CM 32553, CM 32600, AMNH 68616-17, AMNH 68619-20, MCZ 49736, MCZ 93334); northeastern part, 2° (ASFS V10752-53); near Nixon’s Harbour, 1 (CM 32616) oad. to Nixon’s Harbour, west end, 3 (MCZ 93335-37); road to airport, west end, 2 (MCZ 93338-39); 1 to 1.5 mi. SSE northwest point, 16 (MCZ 93340-43, MCZ 93345-46, MCZ 93354-61, MCZ 93365-66); 1.5 mi. S northwest point, 1 (MCZ 93344); 0.5 to 1.5 mi. SSE northwest point, 5 (MCZ 93347-51); 0.75 to 1 mi. WNW airstrip, 2 (MCZ 93352-53); 1 mi. SSE northwest point, 3 (MCZ 93362-64); no data other than South Bimini, 7 (ASFS V7116- SCHWARTZ AND THoMAs: Review of Anolis 65 19, MCZ 80129-31); no data other than “Bimini Island” or “Bimini”, 2 (UMMZ 118302, UF/FSM 7711); Andros, Fresh Creek, Coakley Town, 1 (MCZ 41990); Little Creek, 2 (UMMZ 118010); Lisbon Creek shore, 1 (AMNH 76312); Bastian Point, 2 (AMNH 76310-11); Mangrove Cay, 11 (AMNH 74487-96, UMMZ 109221); no data other than Andros Island, 1 (USNM 49533); Berry Islands, Frazer's Hog Cay, near center of north- eastern arm, 2 (ASFS V10669-70); New Providence (localities not mapped), 7 mi. W Nassau, 1 (AMNH 76306); Cave Point, 1 (ASFS 10304); 4.8 mi. SW Cave Junction, 3 (ASFS V10379-81); Yamacraw Beach, 1 (ASFS V10359 ); 0.6 mi. NW Yamacraw Beach, 1 (ASFS V7241); 0.3 mi. E Nassau East, 1 (ASFS V10733); data from ANSP 26119, holotype of A. a. oligaspis included in analysis; Eleuthera, Rock Sound, 8 (UMMZ 115617); between Governors Harbour and Savannah Sound, 1 (ASFS V6803); Great Exuma, 3.2 mi. NW George Town, 7 (ASFS V7028-30, ASFS V7063-66); Bahama Sound, southwest of The Forest, 3 (ASFS V7097-99); Long Island, 4.2 mi. S Adderleys, 1 (ASFS V10824); Deadman’s Cay Settlement, 2 (AMNH 76307-08 ); Clarence Town, 4 (MCZ 38016, MCZ 42288-90); Cat Island, Bennetts Harbour, 1 (AMNH 76309). Hapirat NOTES Anolis angusticeps is not so often encountered in the field as ‘are many less cryptic anoles. For this reason, its habitat has not been well defined. Collette (1961) recorded A. angusticeps as a primarily tree trunk frequenter in a wooded area near La Habana, and Ruibal (1964) considered it to be a lizard of “open habitats: fence posts, rocks, palm trunks, ...” Others (Alayo, 1955; Buide, 1966) have noted its occurrence in coastal sea grape (Coccoloba) situations. Hardy (1967, p. 30) stated that most of the type series of A. a. paternus was taken in grassy meadowland; a few more were found on the trunks of royal palms. In the Bahamas, Oliver (1948) observed A. angusticeps relatively high (6 to 25 feet) in light-barked trees. Our own observations in Cuba encompass all of the above ob- servations for that island. Specimens on which habitat notes were taken were found on shrubs and grass (2), rocks (4), fence post in pasture (1), ground (1), trees, including coastal Coccoloba and Terminalia (3). On the Isla de Pinos one specimen was found on a shrub in a pasture. In the Bahamas A. angusticeps appeared to us to be a more confirmed tree dweller. Most of our specimens were taken at night while they slept on small diameter branches and twigs rela- tively high off the ground (6 to 12 feet) in well developed 66 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES coppice growth (Bahaman coppice at best is distinctly lower than most wooded situations in Cuba). During the day one was taken on a barbed-wire fence (on the wire) adjacent to woods on New Providence and another on a sea grape tree near the coast. On Eleuthera a single specimen was taken on a sloping tree trunk about eight feet above the ground (day). In the Berry Islands - (Frazers Hog Cay) three were observed in the tops of Bursera and Lysiloma saplings 8 to 9 feet above the ground during the heat of the day. On Long Island a single lizard was found in daylight about five feet above the ground on a small sapling in a patch of tamarind trees. However, Mr. Thomas W. Schoener, who observed and collected anoles on Bimini, was able with close observation to find angusticeps more commonly than have other observers. He also found that it occurred on vegetation near the ground as well as high in trees. The habit of this anole of remaining motionless, often adyress- ing itself to its resting place in order to evade notice, has been re- marked upon (Buide, 1966; Garrido and Schwartz, MS; Collette, 1961). The often lichenate coloration and low profile of this lizard make it particularly difficult to see in such circumstances. Anolis angusticeps sleeps lengthwise along a small branch, twig, or vine; the tail is extended posteriorly and the distal portion curled loosely about the supporting object. This sleeping posture is virtually identical to that of the recently described A. occultus of Puerto Rico (Thomas, 1965); the sleeping site of the two species is very similar, but A. angusticeps is broader in tolerance of size and kind of sleeping surface and height above the ground. (A. occultus, it should be noted, is an inhabitant of montane rainforest canopy in contrast to the more xenotopic angusticeps). In gross aspect (short tail and limbs, long body, large head) and general coloration the two species are remarkably similar. One of the more notable coloration resemblances is the presence of a dark lumbar spot in some color phases of both species. We do not suggest that angusticeps and occultus are close rela- tives. Williams and Rivero (1965) have discussed the affinities of occultus, which does not seem to lie with any Antillean species. We merely wish to point out a remarkable similarity. As a matter of fact, the distantly related A. valencienni of Jamaica is also SCHWARTZ AND THOMAS: Review of Anolis 67 of this adaptive style and is in proportions and coloration generally similar to angusticeps. It too has the habit of pressing closely to the substrate to escape notice (Underwood and Williams, 1959). In summary we feel that A. angusticeps is a cryptic tree anole whose means of evading capture lies primarily in protective color- ation and slow movements (as opposed to a cursorial tree anole such as A. distichus, which depends much upon speed to evade capture and which is much more in evidence). The possibility that Cuban and Isla de Pinos A. angusticeps are less arboreal than the Bahaman ones needs further investigation. Part of the reason that A. angusticeps has not been more often observed high in trees in Cuba may be the difficulty of seeing the individuals at all at any distance in natural surroundings. DISCUSSION Anolis angusticeps is one of a group of reptiles (Sphaerodacty- lus notatus, Sphaerodactylus decoratus, Leiocephalus carinatus, _ Ameiva auberi) whose range is primarily Cuba and the Bahama Islands. According to Schwartz (1968b) these animals are part of a relatively recent group of invaders from Cuba whose Bahaman distribution is in most cases restricted to the islands of the Great Bahama Bank. Other Cuban amphibians and reptiles (Hyla sep- tentrionalis, Eleutherodactylus planirostris, Tarentola americana, Anolis carolinensis, Anolis sagrei, Typhlops biminiensis) show re- lated patterns of distribution. From a Cuban center of origin, A. angusticeps reached both the Isla de Pinos and the Bahama Islands. Since some lizards from Pinar del Rio Province in western Cuba still show at least one A. a. paternus character (ventral keeling) to some degree, we consider that A. a. paternus has been only recently divided from A. a. angusticeps. Cuba and the Isla de Pinos are separated by the shallow (18 meters) Golfo de Batabano. It seems likely that, when the Isla de Pinos and Cuba were a single unified land mass (a condition which has probably occurred numerous times in the past, since even relatively slight fluctuations in sea level will unite the two land masses) a more or less continuous popula- tion of A. angusticeps occurred from the Isla de Pinos to Oriente Province. In such a population, the southwestern (Isla de Pinos ) 68 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lizards developed keeled scales; some scale characters in this con- tinuous population were clinal from southwest to east (snout scales between first canthals, postmentals, contact of supraorbital semi- circles). With the separation of the Isla de Pinos from Cuba, A. angusticeps of the latter have been separated from the remainder of the cline and their characters have been fixed. Remnants of the older association are still retained by A. angusticeps in Pinar del Rio. On the Great Bahama Bank, the trend has been toward greater number of postmentals, greater number of scales in the caudal verticils, slightly higher number of loreals, and more scales be- tween the first canthals. Of these, the last is most conspicuous. Some trends in the Bahaman populations have occurred in situ on these islands; the high incidence of ventral keeling in Eleuthera A. a. oligaspis is a concrete example. There are also variations in some scale characters (scales between the first canthals, scales be- tween the semicircles and the interparietal) which occur geo- graphically in a rather haphazard manner. These differences be- tween the Great Bank populations of A. angusticeps suggest that an active differentiation has taken place on several of the islands, but in no case in our opinion has this differentiation gone so far as to be acknowledged nomenclatorially. It is instructive to compare A. angusticeps with another recent anoline invader of the Bahamas—Anolis distichus from Hispaniola. Not only has this species evolved a series of subspecies on its parent island (whereas A. angusticeps has not), but A. distichus has a series of six Bahaman subspecies. The ranges of the two lizards are comparable, except that A. distichus has reached two islands (Rum Cay, San Salvador) which are off the Great Bank and which together are inhabited by one of the six Bahaman races. The subspecies of A. distichus are easily characterized by head scalation, dewlap color, and body pattern and color. The differen- ces between A. distichus and A. angusticeps may be attributable to more ancient arrival in the Bahamas of A. distichus. There is also the possibility, supported by some evidence in other species, that a cryptic, bark anole (as opposed to more cursorial ones) is less liable to great color variation, presumably because of selective pressure to maintain the successful protective coloration. SCHWARTZ AND THOMAS: Review of Anolis 69 LITERATURE CITED AuAyo DatMau, Pastor. 1955. Lista de los reptiles de Cuba. Museo Charles T. Ramsden, Universidad de Oriente, mimeographed, pp. 1-29°7 pls. Barspour, THomas. 1937. Third list of Antillean reptiles and amphibians. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 77-166. Bume, Mario S. 1966. Reptiles de la Peninsula Hicacos. Poeyana, ser. A, no. 21, pp. 1-12. CoLLeTTe, Bruce B. 1961. Correlations between ecology and morphology in anoline lizards from Havana, Cuba and southern Florida. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 125, no. 5, pp. 137-162, 6 figs. Garripo, ORLANDO H., AND ALBERT SCHwaRTz. MS. Aves y reptiles de Cayo Cantiles (Archipiélago de los Canarreos, Cuba). Harpy, JERRY D., Jr. 1967. Geographic variation in the West Indian lizard, Anolis angusticeps, with the description of a new form, Anolis: angusticeps paternus, subsp. nov., from the Isle of Pines, Cuba (Reptilia: Iguanidae). Carib. Jour. Sci., vol. 6, nos. 1-2, pp. 23-31, 4 figs. : ; Maerz, A.. aNnD M. Rea Pauxt. 1950. A dictionary of color. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., pp. i-vii, 1-23, 138-208, 56 pls. OxiveR, JAMES A. 1948. The anoline lizards of Bimini, Bahamas. Amer. Mus. Novitates, no. 1383, pp. 1-36, 3 figs. _ Rurpat, Ropotro. 1964. An annotated checklist and key to the anoline lizards of Cuba. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 130, no. 8, pp. 475-520, 18 figs. SCHWARTZ, ALBERT. 1968a. Geographic variation in Anolis distichus Cope (Lacertilia, Iguanidae) in the Bahamas Islands and Hispaniola. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 137, no. 2, pp. 255-304, 4 figs., 2 pls. —— 1968b. The geckos (Sphaerodactylus) of the southern Bahama Islands. Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. 39, no. 17, pp. 227-271, 5 figs. Tuomas, RicHarp. 1965. Field observations on Anolis occultus Williams and Rivero. Breviora, Mus. Comp. Zool., no. 231, pp. 10-16, 2 figs. THoMaAsS, RICHARD, AND ALBERT ScHwartTz. 1966. The Sphaerodactylus decoratus complex in the West Indies. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 1-26, 20 figs. UNDERWOOpD, GARTH, AND ERNEST WituiaMs. 1959. The anoline lizards of Jamaica. Bull. Inst. Jamaica, Sci. Ser., no. 9, pp. 1-48, 6 figs. WILLIAMS, ERNEST E., AND JUAN A. Rivero. 1965. A new anole (Sauria, Iguanidae) from Puerto Rico. Breviora, Mus. Comp. Zool., no. 231, pp. 1-9, 4 figs. Miami-Dade Junior College, Miami, Florida 33167; Rt. 6, Box 382-Al, Tampa, Florida 33610. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(1) 1968( 1969 ) A Mass inshore Movement of Fishes on the Florida Coast CARTER R. GILBERT SPORADIC mass shoreward movement of marine fishes and other animals is a fairly frequent phenomenon in certain parts of the world. Periodic fish kills have been reported from Walvis Bay, Southwest Africa (Copenhagen, 1953), and from Concepcion Bay, Chile (Falke, 1950). At both places these kills occur under spe- cific meteorologic and oceanographic conditions, which are coupled with the geography of the region concerned. In United States waters such movements are best known from Mobile Bay, Alabama (Loesch, 1960), where, in contrast to the situations in Africa and South America, mortality is infrequent. Although these move- ments are not common, they are by no means unusual; from 1946 to 1956, inclusive, 35 such occurrences were reported from Mobile Bay, varying in number from none in 1954 to ten in 1950. This phenomenon is locally termed a “Jubilee” or “Alabama Jubilee’, and when it occurs local residents congregate in large numbers to gather the animals so affected. Large congregations of freshwater fishes have also occasionally been observed, in which neither spawning activity nor obvious physical barriers to migration appear to be involved. One such concentration, which occurred in a small stream near Gainesville, Florida, was investigated in March, 1963. Although the fishes were gathered in large numbers at the water’s edge, they other- wise did not appear to be in distress, and chemical analysis of the water failed to indicate anything abnormal. At about 3:00 on the afternoon of 17 September 1962, a spec- tacular concentration of fishes was noted along the beach just south of Marineland, Florida, which is situated about 50 miles south of Jacksonville. This beach, which is composed basically of the quartz sand characteristic of the Florida upper east coast, contains a large concentration of coquina rocks at or near the water line, which, in turn, afford a favorable habitat for certain species of shore fishes. Although many fishes were found above the water line, most of the eels so stranded remained in their burrows and were still alive. What mortality had occurred apparently was due solely to prolonged exposure to the air, since those individuals still in the water did not appear to be in distress. A high percent- GiutBertT: Inshore Movement of Fishes 71 age of the species involved usually live beyond the intertidal area (one species occurring as deep as 1500 feet), whereas others may live in shallow water but rarely are found in the ecological situation prevailing at Marineland beach. Furthermore, with one excep- tion the presumed non-resident species are burrowers, and belong to only three families (Bothidae, Ophidiidae, and Ophichthidae ). Inasmuch as a “jubilee” has not, to my knowledge, previously been reported in the literature from the Atlantic coast of the United States, the surrounding circumstances seem worthy of dis- cussion. The prevailing meteorologic and oceanographic condi- tions during the Marineland and Mobile Bay jubilees are compared and are shown, for the most part, to be quite different. Although the causes of the Mobile Bay jubilees seem to be well understood, more information is needed before the Marineland phenomenon can be adequately explained. The usual habitats of the fishes col- lected at Marineland also are discussed, and an attempt is made to correlate these with possible movements of the various species. Loesch (1960) presented a detailed discussion of mass shore- ‘ward movements of fishes and crustaceans in Mobile Bay. He showed that such movements occur as the result of a definite com- bination of conditions, which results in an inshore movement of water that is low in dissolved oxygen and which forces the animals ahead of it. He found that jubilees occur: 1) only in summer; 2) usually before sunrise; 3) usually when the wind on the previous day and during the jubilee is from an easterly direction (a change in wind direction will cause the jubilee to cease); 4) only on a rising tide (a change to a falling tide will stop the jubilee); and 5) when two water masses meet, with the saltier water invading during the jubilee. In addition, the concentration of fishes and invertebrates during a jubilee usually is on the east side of the bay; however, Dr. Herbert Boschung informs me that this may occasionally occur on the opposite shore. Presumably a west-shore jubilee results from the same combination of conditions described below, except that the wind direction is reversed. Loesch determined that a jubilee results from the following sequence of events. A pocket of highly saline water is present in the deepest area of Mobile Bay, and this pocket is overlain by fresh water entering the bay from the Alabama River. In summer the heavier, salty water tends to lose oxygen and gain carbon 72 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES dioxide, from the combination of high temperature and accumu- lated organic debris. During the day plant life in this pocket of water produces oxygen and uses carbon dioxide, but at night this process is reversed. Normally, the oxygen-poor water remains in the deepest part of the bay; however, a gentle east wind, though of insufficient intensity to mix the water near shore, is nevertheless strong enough to push the surface water west and offshore. As the water moves offshore, it is replaced by the deeper, more saline water, which is pushed shoreward by a rising tide. When, under the conditions of east wind and rising tide, this body of deeper, oxygen-poor water moves very close to shore, the demersal animals crowd to the shore and a jubilee is in progress. The concentration of fishes observed at Marineland differs from those from Mobile Bay in a number of ways. First, it occurred during the middle of the afternoon. Second, according to the tidal charts (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1962), high tide around Marineland on 17 September 1962 occurred about 10:30 AM and low tide about 5:00 PM. Although these times are approximate for the Marineland area, the tide nevertheless was falling there around 3:00 PM. Third, the area where the jubilee was observed is not partially enclosed by land, as is Mobile Bay. Fourth, the jubilee does not seem to have been confined to the immediate area around Marineland, but was noted by John Taylor on the same afternoon just above Matanzas Inlet, about 4 miles to the north. Fifth, no unusual concentration of invertebrates was observed, ex- cept as noted below. Sixth, there are no major freshwater streams entering the ocean around Marineland and thus there is no meet- ing of large salt and fresh water masses. Seventh, no large quan- tity of organic debris, such as is present in Mobile Bay, is believed to be present off Marineland. Wind direction on the afternoon in question was not noted, although the day was very calm, and what wind there was presumably was blowing in from the ocean, i.e., from an easterly direction. The only unusual invertebrates encountered were pteropod mol- lusks (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia ), which were present in great numbers, not only at Marineland, but at least as far away as the St. Johns River, about 50 miles to the north (Ted Allen, in litt. to F. J. S. Maturo). Pteropods are pelagic, and sometimes are found in tremendous numbers along beaches in different parts of the world GitBeRtT: Inshore Movement of Fishes 73 (Abbott, 1954, p. 292). As mentioned previously, the species of fishes believed to have moved into shore at Marineland are all demersal, as are those species involved in the jubilees in Mobile Bay. Although there may be a direct relationship between the unusual concentrations of pteropods and fishes, the ecological dif- ferences between these animals suggest that the two phenomena possibly are coincidental. F. G. Wood, at the time Curator of Exhibits at Marine Studios, told me that he had seen only one other jubilee in the Marineland area, this having taken place during late summer of 1956. He said that the weather at the time had been hot and the seas very calm for several weeks previously; these conditions had also pre- vailed during early September, 1962. Thus, except for the simi- larity in wind direction, which in this case is probably coincidental, the only really basic similarities between the Marineland and Mo- bile Bay jubilees are the facts that all occurred during the summer and that the fishes involved are bottom dwellers. Frederick H. Berry has suggested that the jubilee might pos- sibly be the result of deep (175-200 tathoms) subsurface waves over the slope zone off northeastern Florida. However, Paul Struh- saker, who has studied these waves, doubts that these phenomena are related. Struhsaker has also analyzed the bottom temperature data taken during the cruises of the research vessel Theodore N. Gill along the southeastern Atlantic coast, and he informs me (in litt.) that he can find no evidence of any conditions during late summer that might account for the jubilee. The following points, then, can be made. 1) The fact that the two jubilees observed in the Marineland area both occurred during late summer, following a period of hot, calm weather seems significant. 2) In all likelihood the Marineland jubilees resulted from a chain of as yet undetermined events that were triggered by the prevailing weather conditions. 3) Possibly the fish (and ptero- pods?) were driven toward shore by an oxygen-poor, carbon- dioxide rich water mass, of undetermined origin, moving inshore from deeper water. But if so, 4) the apparent absence of any unusual concentration of bottom-dwelling invertebrates is puzzling. A satisfactory explanation for these phenomena is yet to be found. Inasmuch as the fishes obtained during the jubilee included a 74 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mixture of resident and non-resident forms, a review and dis- cussion of the various species encountered seems pertinent. I. Resident forms commonly encountered over an open bottom: Trachinotus carolinus (Linnaeus ) Trachinotus faicatus (Linnaeus ) Menticirrhus littoralis (Holbrook ) Umbrina coroides Cuvier Eucinostomus argenteus Baird II. Resident species inhabiting rocky shore, frequently in inter- tidal areas: Centropristis striatus striatus (Linnaeus ) (young only ) Rypticus maculatus Holbrook (young only ) Anisotremus surinamensis (Bloch) (young only ) Scorpaena plumieri Bloch (young only ) Abudefduf saxatilis (Linnaeus) (young only ) Abudefduf taurus (Miller and Troschel) (young only ) Labrisomus nuchipinnis (Quoy and Gaimard ) Hypleurochilus geminatus (Wood) Hypsoblennius hentz (Lesueur ) Gobiesox strumosus Cope The presence of young only of the first six species above prob- ably is related to the lack of living space for adults, as well as the fact that spawning likely occurred offshore, and the eggs, or young, later drifted in and were deposited among the rocks. In some cases spawning may have occurred well to the south, and the eggs or young were carried north by the Gulf Stream. These species are free swimming, and, with the possible exception of Abudefduf, probably move offshore as they reach a larger size. Except for Centropristis striatus, all continue to live in rock or reef areas as adults. The last four species never swim free of the rocky substrate, and, as a result, spend their postlarval life in a very limited area. All are found in shallow situations, and seldom occur in water much deeper than 10 or 26 feet. The populations of Labrisomus nuchi- pinnis, Hypleurochilus geminatus, and Hypsoblennius hentz, how- ever, could be a mixture of resident and immigrant individuals, in- asmuch as these species have pelagic larvae. Gobiesox strumosus does not have pelagic larvae, and is the species least likely to be affected by recruitment from the outside. It is unlikely that any Gmupert: Inshore Movement of Fishes 75 of these four species move through open areas after having passed the larval stage. A subsequent collection at the Marineland locality the follow- ing summer failed to turn up Anisotremus surinamensis or Rypticus maculatus; however, inasmuch as two other species (Lutjanus gri- seus and Diplodus holbrooki) not taken in the September, 1962, collection were found, this may not be meaningful. Although Courtenay (1967, p. 274) reports that most specimens of Rypticus maculatus he examined were collected at depths of from 15-50 fathoms, I have found this species to be fairly common within a few feet of shore around Anna Maria Island, Manatee County, Florida, in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (UF 10888, 10905, 10942; a total of 15 specimens, collected in July, 1963). III. Probable non-resident species, thought to have moved in from deeper water: Centropristis philadelphicus (Linnaeus ) Ophidion grayi (Fowler) Rissola marginata (DeKay ) Syacium papillosum (Linnaeus ) Citharichthys spilopterus Ginther Etropus microstomus (Gill) Ophichthus ocellatus (Lesueur ) Ophichthus gomesi (Castelnau ) Ophichthus melanoporus Kanazawa Letharchus velifer Goode and Bean Bascanichthys scuticaris (Goode and Bean) With one exception, all of the above species are frequently en- countered in shallow water, and perhaps are more common in close to shore than is generally realized. The species of Ophidiidae (genera Ophidion and _ Rissola) and Ophichthidae (genera Ophichthus, Letharchus, and Bascanichthys) live in the substrate and come out into the open only at night (Starck and Davis, 1966, pp. 317 and 342; and personal observation), with the cusk eels (ophidiids), in particular, moving free of the burrow. The snake eels (ophicthids) burrow well down into the substrate, and this, in company with their slender bodies, probably accounts for their relative scarcity in trawl collections. The geographic and bathymetric distributions of many species of Ophichthidae is con- sequently poorly known. The use of rotenone poisons has resulted 76 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in sizeable collections of certain species (e.g., Bascanichthys scu- ticaris) occurring in very shallow water. This would suggest that many of the deep-water species probably are more common than collections indicate. Although the ophidiids and flatfishes live in the substrate, they do not live in deep burrows, as do the ophich- thids; consequently, they are much more easily collected by trawls and dredges. Of the above species, the only ones with which I have had extensive experience are Citharichthys spilopterus (family Bothi- dae) and Bascanichthys scuticaris (family Ophicthidae). The for- mer is very common in estuarine situations, and frequently is found in completely fresh water. The latter is common around Cedar Key, Florida, on the Gulf coast, where it occurs in oyster beds or in closely similar situations in water a few inches deep. The record of Ophichthus melanoporus is easily the most inter- esting and significant of those listed above. This species was de- scribed by Kanazawa (1963) from five specimens taken at a depth of 250 fathoms off Andros Island (Bahamas) at COMBAT station 448. The present record, which is the first for United States waters, suggests that the single specimen either is a stray from deeper water, or that the geographic and bathymetric distribution of the species is much more extensive than is presently realized. In view of our imperfect knowledge of the distribution of many species of Ophichthidae, the latter possibility certainly cannot be ignored. Nevertheless, if O. melanoporus should occur regularly within several hundred feet of the surface along the east coast of Florida, it is surprising that the species has never been found in the hundreds of collections made at various depths from this area. The specimen of Ophichthus melanoporus was collected by John Taylor on the beach just north of Matanzas Inlet, under the same conditions described for the Marineland locality. Several other eel specimens also given to me by Mr. Taylor are of the same species found at Marineland. Inasmuch as Matanzas Inlet is only a short distance away and the ecological conditions were the same as those encountered at Marineland, the specimen of O. melanoporus is discussed concurrently with those taken at the latter locality. Several subsequent rotenone collections at the site of the jubilee, both in and around the coquina rocks as well as over the open sand SILBERT: Inshore Movement of Fishes a bottom, failed to reveal any flatfish, cusk-eels, or snake eels. Al- though this does not necessarily mean that these fish were not present there at the time the collections were made, it neverthe- less is suggestive. Furthermore, the habitat from which Basca- nichthys scuticaris was collected in the eastern Gulf of Mexico is somewhat different from that encountered at Marineland. Finally, the collection of the specimen of Ophichthus melanoporus, which otherwise has been found only in 250 fathoms of water, further indicates that some movement into shallow water has occurred. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the following individuals: Dr. C. Richard Robins, Institute of Marine Science, University of Miami, for iden- tifying some of the cusk-eels (ophidiids) reported upon and for reviewing and commenting upon this manuscript; Frederick H. Berry, Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratory, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Miami, Florida, and Paul Struhsaker, University of Hawaii (formerly U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Brunswick, Georgia), for comments relating to possible causes of the Marine- land jubilee; Dr. Archie F. Carr, University of Florida, for review- ing this manuscript; Dr. E. Lowe Pierce, University of Florida, for information on tidal changes on the east coast of Florida and also for reviewing this manuscript; Dr. F. J. S. Maturo, University of Florida, for information on the pteropods encountered during the jubilee; John Taylor, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, St. Peters- burg Beach, Florida, for the donation of several eel specimens collected during the jubilee at Matanzas Inlet and for information pertaining to this collection; F. G. Wood, Jr., U. S. Naval Missile Center, Point Mugu, California (formerly of Marine Studios, Ma- rineland), for information on previous Marineland jubilees; and Dr. Herbert T. Boschung, Jr., University of Alabama, for additional information on the Mobile Bay jubilees. LITERATURE CITED Appott, R. Tucker. 1954. American seashells. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., New York, N. Y., pp. vii-xiv, 3-541. CorpENHAGEN, W. J. 1953. The periodic mortality of fish in the Walvis region. South African Jour. Sci., vol. 49, pp. 330-331. 78 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CourTNEY, JR., WALTER R. 1967. Atlantic fishes of the genus Rypticus (Grammistidae). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 119, no. 6, pp. 241-293. FaLkE, H. 1950. Das Fischsterben in der Bucht von Concepcion ( Mittel- chile). Senckenbergiana, vol. 31, pp. 57-77. KANAZAWA, RopertT H. 1963. Two new species of ophichthid eels from the western Atlantic. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. 76, pp. 281-288. LorscH, Harotp. 1960. Sporadic mass shoreward migrations of demersal fish and crustaceans in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Ecology, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 292-298: Starck, IJ, WaLTER A., AND WILLIAM P. Davis. 1966. Night habits of fishes of Alligator Reef, Florida. Ichthyologica, the aquarium journal, vol, 38) no, 4) pp. olls-3oG6) - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Coast AND GEODETIC SuRVEY. 1962. Tide tables - high and low water predictions, east coast of North and South America including Greenland. U. S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C., pp. 1-283. Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(1) 1968( 1969 ) Two Birds New to the Pleistocene of Reddick, Florida RICHARD BREWER In examining material collected from the Pleistocene fossil beds of Reddick, Marion County, Florida, I encountered elements of two taxa not previously reported from this deposit. The taxa are the family Ardeidae, represented by a nearly complete left cora- coid (University of Florida no. PB 9039) and the Mississippi kite, Ictinia misisippiensis, represented by a complete right tarsometa- tarsus (PB 9032). The heron coracoid (from Site C of Hamon, 1964) resembles that element of Hydranassa tricolor, Leucophoyx thula, and Florida caerulea. The fossil bone is long in relation to the size of the upper part of it. The ratio between the distance from the notch of the procoracoid to the upper end and the distance from the notch of the procoracoid to the internal distal angle was 0.292 in the fossil. For the three contemporary species, means and ex- tremes for the same ratio were H. tricolor (7 specimens ), 0.333 (.320-.360 ) L. thula (16 specimens ), 0.319 (.297-.346 ) F. caerulea (12 specimens ), 0.309 (.293-.327). On this basis, the probability that the fossil specimen is from a population with the same mean as the sample of H. tricolor (stand- ard deviation, 0.0134) is less than 0.05. The fossil is somewhat larger than any available specimen of these three species. Its length is 41.7 mm measured from the internal distal angle. Means and extremes for the three contemporary species were H. tricolor, 38.1 (36.8-40.2) ie thula, 31.6 (34.7-41.3) Hencaermled, 31-6 (35.4-39)7 ).. The fossil is not similar to Palaeophoyx columbiana McCoy, reported from the Pleistocene of Florida (McCoy, 1963). The coracoid of P. columbiana is longer with a very long, slender “shaft” and a high scapular facet. The fossil kite (from Site B) differed from Ictinia plumbea and resembled I. misisippiensis in having the inner proximal fora- men at the base of the calcaneal ridge rather than medial to it, 80 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in having the inner calcaneal ridge straight rather than curved laterally, and in having the wing of the trochlea for digit 2 rela- tively narrow. The Mississippi kite is known from _ prehistoric sites in Ohio and Ilinois (Brodkorb, 1964), but this appears to be the first record of its occurrence during the Pleistocene. Other specimens examined, representing species already re- ported from Reddick (Brodkorb, 1957; Hamon, 1964) were a complete right ulna of Spatula clypeata; the distal portion of a right femur of Coragyps occidentalis; complete left and right femurs, a complete left tibiotarsus, and a complete right humerus of Colinus suilium; and a nearly complete left coracoid of Protocitta dixi. The avifauna of Reddick identified to species now totals 64, of which 13 species are extinct. I gratefully make the following acknowledgments: to Western Michigan University for the granting of a sabbatical leave which made this work possible; to the Department of Zoology of the University of Florida for use of its facilities; and to Pierce Brod- korb for allowing me to study the material and for a great deal of help while studying it. LITERATURE CITED Bropkors, Prerce. 1957. New passerine birds from the Pleistocene of Reddick, Florida. Jour. Paleontology, vol. 31, pp. 129-138, 1 text- fig., 20 pl. ——. 1964. Catalogue of fossil birds. Part 2 (Anseriformes through Galliformes). Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 8, pp. 195-335. Hamon, J. Hiri. 1964. Osteology and paleontology of the passerine birds of the Reddick, Florida, Pleistocene. Florida Geol. Surv. Geol. Bull, no: 445 210 pp:,, figs 13: McCoy, Joun J. 1963. The fossil avifauna of the Itchtucknee River, Florida. Auk, vol. 80; pp. 335-351, fig. 3: C. C. Adams Center for Ecological Studies, Department of Biology, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(1) 1968(1969 ) FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1968 Archbold Expeditions Barry College Central Florida Junior College Florida Atlantic University Florida Institute of Technology Florida Presbyterian College Florida Southern College Florida State University Jacksonville University Marymount College Miami-Dade Junior College Mound Park Hospital Foundation Nova University of Advanced Technology Polk Junior College Rollins College St. Leo College Stetson University University of Florida University of Florida Communications Sciences Laboratory University of Miami University of South Florida University of Tampa FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 OFFICERS FOR 1968 President: CLARENCE C CLARK Department of Physical Sciences, University of South Florida Tampa, Florida President Elect: Maurice A. BARTON Mound Park Hospital Foundation St. Petersburg, Florida Secretary: Joun D. McCrone Department of Zoology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Treasurer: JAMES B. FLEEK Department of Chemistry, Jacksonville University Jacksonville, Florida Editor: PireERcE BRODKORB Department of Zoology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, and orders for back numbers should be addressed to the Treasurer Correspondence regarding exchanges should be addressed to Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries Gainesville, Florida Quarterly Journal of the — Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 31 June, 1968 No. 2 CONTENTS Comets, superstitions, and history Duane Koenig 81 Amphioxus in Old Tampa Bay, Florida Gideon E. Nelson 93 Reproduction and ecology of the longnose killifish Robert A. Martin and John H. Finucane 101 An extinct Pleistocene owl from Cuba Pierce Brodkorb 112 The bone-eating dog, Borophagus diversidens Cope Walter W. Dalquest 115 Nesting status of the brown pelican in Florida in 1968 Lovett E. Williams, Jr., and Larry Martin 130 Hippoboscid flies from cattle egrets in central Florida John B. Funderburg, Margaret L. Gilbert, and Ernest L. Bostelman 141 Nitrate and ammonia in rumen of steers fed millet D. T. Buchman, R. L. Shirley, and G. B. Killinger 143 Oyster shell as roughage replacement in cattle diets T. A. Dunn and J. F. Hentges 150 JUL 2 1969 CIBRARIED Mailed May 22, 1969 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing significant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of © the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. 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Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 31 June, 1968 No. 2 Comets, Superstitions, and History DUANE KOENIG THe day the Ikeya-Seki “hairpin” comet reached perihelion, October 21, 1965, the Miami Herald ran an article (p. 6A) entitled, “Nobody's Afraid of Comets. ... Anymore.” Broadly speaking that was true. From earliest times comets, meteors, and eclipses have been both of interest and concern to human beings. Of these, comets have attracted the most attention. One astronomy manual asserts, “More excitement has been caused by comets than by any other objects that appear in the sky. Battles have been stopped in mid-career, proclamations have been issued, whole populations have been thrown into panic, kings have abdicated from their thrones, men have died of fear” (Bernhard, Bennett, and Rice, 1948). Comets have provided subject matter not only for astrologers, astronomers, philosophers, and historians, but also for poets, novel- ists, and playwrights. Mention of these astral visitors occurs in Homer, Vergil, Ovid, Plutarch, Tacitus, Juvenal, and Claudian of antiquity, Rabanus Maurus, Abélard, and Aquinas of the Middle Ages, and Spenser, Tasso, Defoe, Pope, Thomson, Byron, Tennyson, and Tolstoy of the modern period, and elsewhere. The name “comet” has been used for ships, trains, airplanes, cars, newspapers, race horses, taverns, filling stations, hotels, jazz bands, and cleans- ers. Comets have appeared in Christian art as emblems of Christ- mas and in heraldry as figures on escutcheons. The old boy scout “weather” merit badge displayed a comet. The Italians used to sell comete at church doors on saints’ days. These were cakes made with honey and sliced nuts. Americans say, “He rose like a comet,” when referring to someone who has achieved success quickly. Greeks say, “He disappeared like a comet,” when referring to some- 82 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES one who has vanished unexpectedly. Tibetans speak of an event being rare as a comet at noon. There is at least one comet joke. (What is a star with a tail? Mickey Mouse! ). Though five or more telescope comets may be noted annually, on average fifteen to twenty comets per century are visible to the naked eye. Perhaps four or five are outstanding. A few are bright as or brighter than Venus and a very few such as Ikeya-Seki can even be seen in the daytime. Little wonder then that many super- stitions have arisen about the influence of comets on human affairs, particularly during the many millenniums before invention of the telescope and before enlightened acceptance of comets as natural law-abiding heavenly bodies. Walter Winchell summed up the ob- vious in 1964, “A comet is always more exciting than a fixed star” (Miami Herald, March 30, 1964, p. 5B). The story of comets has several facets. These mix fact and legend. Almost always in classical times comets were regarded as portents, generally as warnings of dire events, but now and then as harbingers of happy things. Comets, meteors, and stars signal- ized birth of gods, heroes, and prophets. Heavenly lights were vis- ible for Krishna, Abraham, Moses, Lao-tzu, Buddha, Aesculapius, Christ, some of the Caesars, and Mohammed. The medieval John of Damascus appeared to think the Star of the Magi was a comet (Pingre, 1783-1784; Hellman, 1944). Old convictions continued in the Christian era. To these were added patristic pronounce- ments stating comets were threats of an angry God to the wicked, or signs of the Last Judgment to the righteous. Such concepts were held by Christians of the Middle Ages and by both Catholics and Protestants after the Reformation. Incidently, Pliny the Elder ex- plained in his Natural History that “comet” comes from Greek and Latin words for “hair,” because of the resemblance between a comet and a woman’s hair streaming in the wind. Astronomers have been able to describe comets scientifically in the past three hundred years. With two exceptions popular atti- tudes have become less apprehensive. The notion gained ground for a long period that a comet might hit the earth or sun causing terrestial devastation. Conceivably a comet might bring in its tail cyanogen gas, asphyxiating populations. Nearly ninety years go Jules Verne plotted a collision between earth and comet in a novel called in English, Off on a Comet! Also there was specula- KOENIG: Comets and Superstitions 83 tion comets were inhabited or that meteors (presumably cometary debris ) first carried life to earth. Comets were recorded early in both the East and the West. Chinese and Japanese thought they saw likeness between a comet's tail and the bundle of twigs in a broom. The motion of a comet's tail across the constellations was similar to a broom over a floor. Comets were “besom stars.” One in 524 B.C., traveled eastwards towards the Milky Way. A Chinese officer declared, “This is a broom to sweep away the old and give us new. God often makes such signs. The feudal princes will suffer calamities by fire.” Per- sians and Koreans viewed comets as of evil nature and often an- nouncing war with the country in whose direction the tail pointed. Hindus felt they were disruptive of life. South American Indians deemed them objects of terror. Some North American Indians imagined they were spirits of departed chiefs (Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 1908-1927). In the West the “blazing star” of 43 B.C. which occurred at the time of the funeral games for the murdered Julius Caesar, was considered a celestial chariot to carry heavenward the shade of the dead statesman. Augustus Caesar held this a good omen and in a temple at Rome instituted comet worship. Comets had marked earlier civil war between Pompey and Caesar, and afterwards, the deaths of Claudius and Nero, and the capture of Jerusalem by Titus. A 1910 satirist depreciating slow appearance of Halley's comet— the most celebrated in all history—wrote, Where is that fiery ‘dagger in the sky’ That could so thrill the ancients and bamboozle ’em, That once (unless the annal-mongers lie) Spoke far from comfortably to Jerusalem (Punch, or London Charivari, 1910). The Emperor Vespasian was cautioned about a comet. He con- tended the bearded star did not concern him because he was bald. It threatened his neighbor, the king of the Parthians, who was hairy. Withal Vespasian shortly died (Suetonius). The reasonable explanation for these apparent coincidences is simple. When it is remembered that four hundred comets were listed before the tele- scope and well over a thousand since, it is patent one was always at hand when a portent or memorial was needed. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc. 84 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Aristotle taught three centuries before Christ that comets caused severe winds and hot spells (Aristotle). Pliny emphasized their powers and described comets shaped like javelins, daggers, casks, torches, horses’ manes, and goats’ hair (Pliny the Elder). Men perennially debated whether comets were true celestial bodies, very possibly harmless, or were earthly exhalations, below the moon, and hence dangerous to life. Seneca, a contemporary of Pliny, sug- gested, “Men will some day be able to demonstrate in what region comets have their paths, why their course is so far removed from the other stars, what is their size and constitution” (Pingre, 1783- 1784; Hellman, 1944; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1946; White, 1955; Sambursky, 1956). While the Bible does not mention comets directly, Luke XXI:25 reads, “And there shall be signs in the sun, and in the moon, and in the stars; and upon earth distress of nations, with perplexity; the sea and waves roaring.” Comets might be celestial signs. Halley's comet rose in 837 and frightened Charlemagne’s son, Louis the Pious. He summoned an astrologer and asked what the “blazing star’ meant? Misfortune was predicted. Louis tried to avert this by special prayers, fasts, and church building. He died three years later and medieval chroniclers pointed to correlation. The gravity given to comets may be illustrated. Andrew D. White, American university president, historian, and diplomat of the past century, judged the story of comets a worthy topic for a presidential address at the American Historical Association’s second annual meeting in 1885 (White, 1887). Fear of comets paralyzed self-help, he said, among people in face of untoward happenings, encouraged fanaticism, and strengthened ecclesiastical and political tyranny. He adduced Shakespeare’s familiar remark, “When beg- gars die, there are no comets seen; the heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes” (Shakespeare). Halley’s comet became conspicuous in 1066 about the time of Edward the Confessor’s death and William of Normandy’s invasion of England. Matilda, wife of Duke William, and her ladies repre- sented the comet on the Bayeux tapestry, which memorialized the operation (Fig. 1). The comet reappeared in 1145 accompanied by a great earthquake. In 1222 it foreshadowed demise of Philip Augustus. Albertus Magnus once was questioned why comets sig- nified wars and deaths of potentates? He answered, “But the death Koenic: Comets and Superstitions 85 Oe aogit Ab OUy ne CoN ul KY Ly, Yon sK) ry (( Vy Fig. 1. Halley’s comet in the Bayeux tapestry. of kings is noticed more because of their fame, since their periods have greater planetary dignity, and so greater significations are re- ferred to them.” The waning Middle Ages brought additional sur- mise. Geoffrey of Meaux believed comets like the one of 1315 produced impure, corrupt, and infected blood. This occasioned melancholy, choler, and inordinate appetite. Henry of Hesse, hav- ing in mind the comet of 1368, denied arrival of a comet was prog- nostication of any future happenings (Pingré, 1783-1784; Humbert, 1948; Chambers, 1910; Thorndike, 1950). Of all the legends about comets which have crept into literature, the most persistent has to do with Halley’s in 1456. The Ottoman Turks had captured Constantinople from the Byzantines three years previously. They were now advancing up the Danube and be- leaguring the city of Belgrade. Pope Calixtus III was on the papal throne. He sent forces to aid the Christians against the Moslems. Just as the two armies were approaching climax of battle, the comet appeared impressively, its tail 60° long (Ikeya-Seki’s tail was ex- ceptionally long also, fourth greatest on record). Some commenta- tors relate that the pope issued a bull excommunicating the Turks and the comet. Others say he called for prayers for salvation of the faithful, “From the Devil, the Turk, and the Comet, good Lord, 86 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES deliver us.” Abraham Lincoln supposedly credited the pope’s bull against the comet. So did the World Almanach for 1910 (Pingre, 1783-1784; White, 1887; Zwack, 1910; Enciclopedia Cattolica, 1948- 1954). Careful scrutiny of this romance was undertaken by Jesuit Johann Stein. He demonstrated that the myth of the bull and/or the prayer against the comet originated at least a generation after Calixtus IIT (Stein, 1909; Flammarion, 1904). The surgeon Ambroise Paré was particularly distressed by the comet of 1528. He spoke of it as a bearded star of terrific aspect that alarmed the world and burned the heavens like “a great and gory sword.” Paré went on to report this comet caused some people to fall sick because it was so horrible. Some died of fear. It was of excessive length, the color of blood. His description was Apoca- lyptic. “At summit of it was seen the figure of a bent arm holding in its hand a great sword as if about to strike. At the end of the point were three stars. On both sides of the rays of this comet were seen a number of axes, knives, blood-colored swords, among which were a number of hideous human faces with beards of brist- ling hair” (Howe, 1902). Most comets are silvery grey, but some are accounted yellowish, yellow, or ruddy. Even as Paré conjured up terrors—it was three hundred years later a Frenchman would dare say of a comet supposed to foretell his own death, “Ah, messieurs, la cométe me fait trop d honneur — two royalties took fright and another did not. Louise of Savoy, mother of King Francis I of France, heard of a comet. She assumed it indicated her end. Though in good health she retired to her bed and in three days died. Mayhap the comet of 1556 determined the Emperor Charles V to finish his round of abdications and retire to a Spanish monastery. British Queen Elizabeth I behaved different- ly. She was staying at Richmond when a comet was sighted. Nerves steady, she ordered curtains and windows opened. She said, “The dyce are throwne’; and she placed her confidence in God (Scott, 1890; Brand, 1900; Elson, 1910). Little surprise that amulets were worn against comets. It is claimed the comet of 1577 led King Sebastian of Portugal to cross to Africa and his destruction. Cattle plague followed a comet in 1597. Shakespeare (as noted) and Milton entertained antique views. The former began a line in King Henry VI, Part 1, “Comets, importing change of time and states, . . .” and the latter in Paradise KOENIG: Comets and Superstitions 87 Lost referred to a comet that “from its horrid hair / Shakes pesti- lence and war” (Shakespeare; Milton). Invention of the telescope in Holland, 1608, and its early em- ployment by Galileo made accurate search of the sky possible. Comets became less vexing. Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy in 1621 questioned, “whether there be generation and corruption, as some think, by reason of aetheral comets” (Burton, 1859). Comets were supra-lunary. Still 1664’s comet introduced rebellion in Cey- lon and coinage of “comet dollars” in the Germanies. These last intrigue collectors today. A medal of 1680 had inscription, “The star threatens evil things: Only Trust! God will make things turn to good” (Encyclopaedia of Superstitions, Folklore, and the Occult Sciences of the World,. 1903; Chambers, 1910; Webb and Espin, 1911). Obligingly several hens at Rome laid eggs with design of the 1680 comet on the shells. Two Englishmen first offered scien- tific and accurate explanations for comets. Isaac Newton published his famous work on gravitation, Principia Mathematica, 1687, and advised that comets like planets were obedient to universal attrac- tion. They were guided by the same laws. Edmund Halley through careful observation and calculation computed the orbit of the comet of 1682, the one now named after him. He predicted its return in roughly seventy-five years or 1758-1759. The comet came back as Halley promised (albeit he did not live to see it), being discovered in Saxony on Christmas of 1758 (Annual Register, 1759). As for Lexell’s comet, 1773, a Parisian scholar noted, “There were not wanting people who knew how well to play upon the super- stitions of people by turning to their advantage the alarm inspired by the portentous body and selling places in paradise at a very high rate’ (Elson, 1910; White, 1955). One thing “blazing stars” benefited was wine production. The phrase vin de la cométe in some French-English dictionaries is trans- lated, “wine of 1811.” The grapes gathered in 1811 were unusual in quality and quantity. The port wine was the best tasted in dec- ades. Other years that provided exceptional wines also had worth- while comets, 1826, 1839, 1845, 1852, 1858, 1861, and 1882. Allega- tions were made that the comet of 1811 blinded flies and that chil- dren born under a comet would have a hard life. It was unlucky to start a business venture when a comet was in the heavens. Ru- mors circulated that the Great Lakes and the fjords of Norway had 88 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES been excavated by the comet of 1811 on a previous visit. Later the meteor crater of Arizona was imputed to a small comet (Reddall, 1889; Proctor, 1926; Bernhard, Bennett, and Rice, 1948; Hoyle, I). The 1811 comet was a striking double-tailed affair perceptible all fall. The credulous linked it with the fortunes of the Emperor Napoleon who bestrode Europe. The astronomer Charles Messier had discovered a comet on August 8, 1769. Bonaparte was born seven days after and always talked about “my star,” a kind of pro- tecting genie. Though cynical about human beings, he paid some heed to the empyrean. Public opinion was divided as to the comet. Did it augur success in the coming Russian campaign or Napoleon’s downfall? In 1815 the Emperor was on St. Helena dictating his memoirs. Comet hunting proved a delightful pastime in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Women often had comets to their credit. Caroline Herschel, sister of the famous astronomer William Her- schel, beginning in 1786 discovered eight comets. Messier found eighteen. A certain Jean Louis Pons who started his career as doorkeeper of the observatory at Marseilles, turned up thirty-seven betweeen 1801 and 1827. A Nantucket girl, Maria Mitchell, located a comet in 1847. She eventually became professor of astronomy at Vassar (Howe, 1902; Chambers, 1910; Proctor, 1926; Larousse du XX° Siécle, 1928-1932). The comet of 1832 scared people into selling their goods and crowding churches, but the French astronomer Arago proved to his satisfaction then that comets do not influence weather. Regarding collision, Percival Lowell portrayed a comet as a “bag full of noth- ing.” John Herschel said comets were of such airy nature that a comet, tail and all, could be packed in a portmanteau. Rober Ball agreed, “A rhinoceros in full charge would not fear collision with a comet” (Ball, 1915; Pickering, 1953). If more evidence was needed, small stars could be seen through the nucleus of a comet of 1903. This was far cry from Moliere who had composed verses in the seventeenth century about a comet shattering the world like smashed glass. There were no noteworthy fin de siécle “blazing stars.” However there was interest generated when the public learned Halley’s was anticipated for 1909 or 1910. All the old coincidences were racked up by one Edwin Emerson KoENIG: Comets and Superstitions 89 who authored a catchpenny booklet, Comet Lore: Halley's Comet in History and Astronomy (1910). He was excitable as Pare. “Among all the stars known in astronomy, the periodically returning Comet, now known as Halley’s Comet has the most baleful record.” Emer- son went back to 11 B.C. to discuss the perils attendant on each visit of the comet. He cited the Bible and Church Fathers. When he got down to 1910 he made the comet responsible for panic in Mex- ico and massacre in China. He presaged collision, fire, or poison gas. Conveniently for Emerson’s audience, King Edward VII died in the spring of 1910 ( Proctor, 1926). The Nation of London challenged such extravagance. “The list of notable events in mundane history of which Halley's comet was witness is not a very convincing one’ (1910). It went on to quip that Parisians were planning comet parties with men in blue eve- ning dress and ladies in gowns the color of the firmament. If the comet were bringing the world to end, the Rue de la Paix would be advertising the latest in ascension robes. Party favors would be miniature Gabriel's horns in gold (Cowell, 1910). Punch spoke of skirt length fashions. “Meanwhile the tail of the comet is said by some observers to be getting smaller. Apparently the comet has now approached sufficiently near to the earth to see that long trains are no longer worn” (1910). Oldsters like to volunteer reminiscences albeit the most danger- ous man to the historian is he who argues, “I was there.” Sharpers sold pills to ward off cometary poison. A few souls hid in wells, supplied caves with provisions, or stored oxygen bottles. Scientists had grown weary reminding the public the earth had passed safely through the tail of the 1861 comet (Zwack, 1910; Chambers, 1910; Elson, 1910; White, 1955). It could again. The comet was closest May 19-20, 1910. Some recollect a faint haze, probably confusing Halley’s with the earlier more impressive “daylight comet” (Ray- mond A. Lyttelton, oral communication). Curiosity was so general that when an astronomer visited a state prison, he found the inmates had constructed fourteen homemade telescopes. These consisted of rolled newspapers stuck together with breadcrust paste and fitted with spectacle lenses. The prisoners had pointed them through the bars to view the comet ( Brashear, 1925). Thereafter no comets of distinction rose until 1965 though as- trologers liked to point out the births of both President Roosevelts 90 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES were announced by “blazing stars.” A Sunday columnist occasion- ally managed a few lines with the stale intelligence that Mark Twain was born at the time of Halley’s comet in 1835 and died when it came back. One sour note was sounded, 1955, by the inquisitive Cambridge scientist Fred Hoyle. He squared the circle. “It is an old superstition that the appearance of comets in the sky presages disaster. Perhaps the old superstition was right” (1955). A few years back readers might ask newspapers whether uniden- tified pips on British radar screens or “phantom” jets over Italy might be ascribed to comets, whether tire blowouts or elevator stallings were comet inspired. Yet journalists mentioned no disquiet over Ikeya-Seki. Astronomers went about their business with tele- scope and camera. They did likewise when the “cigar-shaped” Mitchell-Jones-Gerber comet was sighted in early July, 1967. No one conjectured on either instance comet-brought catastrophe. Jesuit Horatio Grassi forecast today’s consensus three and a half centuries ago. “Have you seen the comet with its terrifying tail? Behold how with its fearsome beard it is carried sky-high. But no longer need you fear the stellar body with its menacing rays, nor is there harm in those stars which delight us all by their appear- ance’ (Drake and O'Malley, 1960). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express appreciation to University of Michi- gan Library, University of Miami Library, Memorial University of Newfoundland Library, Florida Atlantic University Library, and New York Public Library. LITERATURE CITED ANNUAL REGISTER. 1759. J. Dodsley, London, vol. 2, p. 91. ARISTOTLE. 1923. Meteorologica. Translated by E. W. Webster, Oxford Uni- versity Press, London, bk. 1, chap. 7, lines 19-20. BALL, W. VALENTINE (ed.) 1915. 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Cométographie: ou traité historique et théorique des cométes. L’Imprimerie Royale, Paris, 2 vols. 92 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Proctor, Mary. 1926. The romance of comets. Harper and Brothers, New York, 210 pp. PUNCH, OR THE LONDON CHARIVARI. 1910. London, vol. 138, p. 379, 401. REDDALL, HENRY FREDERIC. 1889. Fact, fancy, and fable: a new handbook. A. C. McClurg and Co., Chicago, 536 pp. SAMBURSKy, SAMUEL. 1956. The physical world of the Greeks. Translated by Merton Dagut. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 255 pp. Scott, WALTER. 1890. The journal of Sir Walter Scott. Harper and Broth- ers, New York, 2 vols. SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM. 1958. The comedies, the histories, the tragedies. Ed. by Peter Alexander. Heritage Press, New York, 3 vols. STEIN, JOHANN. 1909. Calixte et la cométe de Halley. Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, Rome, 40 pp. THORNDIKE, LYNN. 1923-1958. A history of magic and experimental science. Columbia University Press, New York, vol. 2, p. 459. . 1950. Latin treatises on comets between 1238 and 1368. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 274 pp. VERNE, JULES. 1878. Off on a comet! Translated by Edward Roth. Claxton, Remsen, and Haffelinger, Philadelphia, 472 pp. Wess, THOMAS WILLIAM AND T. E. Espin. 1911. Celestial objects for com- mon telescopes. 5th ed. rev. Longmans, Green and Co., London, 2 vols. WuitTE, ANDREW D. 1887. A history of the doctrine of comets. Papers Am. Hist. Assn., G. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London, vol. 2, pp. 5-43. . 1955. A history of the warfare of science and theology in Christen- dom. George Braziller, New York, 2 vols. in 1. WorLp ALMANACH AND ENCYCLOPEDIA FOR 1910. 1909. World Publishing Co., New York, 838 pp. Zwack, GeorceE M. 1910. The return of Halley’s comet and popular appre- hensions. Dept. of the Interior, Weather Bureau, Manila Central Ob- servatory, Manila, 22 pp. Department of History, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(2) 1968( 1969 ) Amphioxus in Old Tampa Bay, Florida Gmron E.. NELSON THE presence of the amphioxus, Branchiostoma caribaeum, in Tampa Bay was documented in 1890 when A. A. Wright collected them near Port Tampa at the mouth of Old Tampa Bay. Wright (1890) reported that specimens were abundant and easily secured. Other workers subsequently collected specimens in the area. Re- cently E. L. Pierce (1965) again affirmed their great abundance by reporting an average of 183 per liter of sand near Gandy Bridge. Boschung and Gunter (1962) and E. L. Pierce (1965) investigated B. caribaeum from other coastal areas of Florida emphasizing the taxonomy and distribution of the organism. The anatomy and embryology of Branchiostoma have been thoroughly studied, but little is known concerning its ecology. The only detailed ecological study on the group was made by J. E. Webb (1958) and by Webb and Hill (1958) on the African amphioxus Branchiostoma nigeriense. Their publication describes its distribution in a large lagoon, the duration of its embryonic and larval stages, growth rates in the adult, salinity tolerance, and relationship to the substrate. They did not emphasize population characteristics of B. nigeriense. The purpose of the study described here was to determine some of the basic attributes of amphioxus populations in Old Tampa Bay. The study was designed specifically to determine whether B. caribaeum had a definite spawning time or spawned throughout the year, how the population changed seasonally as reflected by changes in length frequencies and sexual state; whether age classes could be distinguished by the length frequency data; and some idea of the density of the population. The study was conducted from September 1963 through August 1967. The months during which samples were collected are indicated on Figs. 1 and 2. METHODS The site of the investigation was Old Tampa Bay, an estuary on the west coast of Florida. This is a shallow body of water, with greatest depth of 16 feet, and about 14 nautical miles long by 7 miles wide. Salinity fluctuates between 18-24 parts per thousand, 94 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEC ‘63 N 340 X 46 DEC ‘65 N 227 SEPT ‘63 K 42 SEPT ‘64 N 104 X 41 (op) WY) q i($(|0 SEPT 66 N 115 S 5 X41 Se O < a 10 JAN ‘66 N 198 my ii FZ 2 KX 47 ¥ eee Py tet = ZZ LJ O io OCT ‘66 10 JAN °67 oC N122 N 206 uJ 5 X44 = xX 51 @= _inl 10 NOV ‘63 N75 5 X 41 00 hd , 10 NOV °65 10 FEB ‘66 N 344 N 155 2 X 43 5 X44 10 NOV ‘66 10 FEB ‘67 N143 N 118 5 X48 5 KX 50 20 30 40 50 60 20 30 40 50 60 LENGTH CEASS) sIN Mii NELSON: Amphioxus in Tampa Bay 95 and the area is subject to daily tidal fluctuations. The Bay contains a number of sandy bottom areas suitable for amphioxus, inter- spersed with mud bottom areas and grass flats not inhabited by the animal. Old Tampa Bay has been severely changed by man’s activities, mainly by dredging and the construction of three roadways across it. In addition the area receives heavy recreational use. Despite this drastic alteration of the environment, amphioxus remains abun- dant in Tampa Bay, even as Wright (1890) and Andrews (1893) reported many decades ago. A general sampling survey of the Bay area indicated that a sandy strip along the southeast side of Courtney Campbell Park- way maintained a large population of lancelets and was convenient for sampling purposes. This area served as the collecting station for the study. It was usually visited at low tide to facilitate sampling. Approximately five liters of sand were shoveled into a plastic bucket and carried to the beach for screening. Small amounts of the sand were placed on the screen and washed with sea water. Specimens were picked from the screen and placed in gallon jars of water. Two sieving devices were used, a brass testing sieve with 0.98 mm mesh openings, and a home-made sieve con- structed with two layers of plastic screen having the equivalent of 1 mm openings. The latter device was easier to use and re- tained the smaller specimens about as well as did the brass screen. Both were used throughout the study. Specimens obtained in the manner described above, about twenty per jar, were returned immediately to the University and placed in an air-conditioned laboratory. With no additional atten- tion these specimens survived for three to five weeks in the summer and for several months if collected in winter. The individuals constituting each sample (100 or more) were measured while alive by placing them in a petri dish resting on a plastic, transparent millimeter ruler. Using a low magnification dissecting microscope, the specimen’s total length (from tip of the Fig. 1. Monthly histograms for amphioxus samples collected from Septem- ber through February. Open bars represent individuals without gonads (less than 30 mm in length), or else containing empty gonads. Solid bars represent males and females with full gonads. Number of individuals in the sample and the mean length of members comprising the sample are given. 96 IN EACIa) CLASS on xi 2D Snw NW PIE IACIEIN Wf QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES JUNE “65 N 102 X48 10f MAR ‘64 10 JUNE *66 FN 159 N 206 Sf =X 44 = 5 X45 on a4 10 MAR ‘67 10 JUNE ‘67 N 142 N 104 5 X 51 5 X 50 10 APR “64 10 JULY >66 N 246 N213 -) X 46 5 X43 10 PR ‘66 10 APR 67 N 105 5 R51 -~—--- —, fe 10 MAY “64 AUG 24°66 N 102 N 145 5 X 43 5 X 41 10 MAY 66 10 AUG 10 ‘67 E Ni99 3 N 98 oF X45 eel oy, AUG 28 ‘67 N 88 X% 44 20 30 40 50 60 20 30 40 50 60 L-E NG ll” CAP ANSS SiN ane NELSON: Amphioxus in Tampa Bay 97 rostrum to tip of the caudal fin) was recorded to the nearest millimeter. At the same time the specimen’s sex and degree of sexual maturity (full, empty, or partially empty gonads) was ob- served and recorded. The use of live specimens is a basic and crucial aspect of the study because the animal is semi-transparent while alive but becomes opaque when preserved. The opacity of the preserved specimens makes sex determination or determination of sexual development difficult. On living specimens these condi- tions are obvious at a glance. The length frequency data and data concerning the sexual state of the individuals in a sample are summarized on the length- frequency histograms in Figs. 1-2. Conclusions concerning the population characteristics of B. caribaeum were based primarily on these histograms. ’ SPAWNING As shown by the histogram data, spawning for B. caribaeum in Old Tampa Bay begins in late August. At this time large adults begin to appear with discharged gonads as shown in August 24, 1966, and August 28, 1967 (Fig. 2). This becomes even more evident during September (Fig. 1) and continues into December. In addition, some amount of spawning evidently occurs throughout the year because at least a few small specimens (less than 20 mm in length) are found nearly every month of the year. Sexual maturity in B. caribaeum occurs at 30 mm in length. Specimens smaller than this often contained developing gonads, but the smallest undoubtedly mature individuals were 30 mm or longer. Why reproductive activity begins in late summer is not clearly indicated since there are no sharp changes in salinity, temperature, light intensity, or tides at this time to act as a trigger. Carlisle (1951) found that the ascidians Ciona and Phallesia spawned when fed eggs and sperm of their own species. It is tempting to hypothesize this sort of mechanism operating in amphioxus. That Fig. 2. Monthly histograms for amphioxus samples collected from De- cember through August. Open bars represent individuals without gonads (less than 30 mm in length), or else containing empty gonads. Solid bars represent males and females with full gonads. Number of individuals in the sample and the mean length of members comprising the sample are given. ss ae 98 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is, as a portion of the population reaches sexual maturity during the summer, they spontaneously release eggs and sperm. These products are unavoidably ingested by other mature or near mature individuals to bring about a large scale or simultaneous spawning such as recorded for September (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, evidence available at this time does not support the hypothesis. As quoted from Bone (1958), “Ripe adults were dissected and the eggs and sperm mixed in Boveri dishes, or sperm was placed in the water containing ripe females and vice versa, but these experi- ments yielded no results.” From September through December (Fig. 1) the population consists predominately of members which have either discharged their sexual products or are in the process of developing gonads. After December a steady increase in individuals with full gonads is noted. This build-up continues through the spring and summer until the August spawning. AGE CLASSES A close examination of the histograms indicates that three age groups probably make up the population in Tampa Bay. This is especially evident in samples for September 1964, November 1963, December 1966, January 1964, February 1966, May 1964, July 1966 and 1967, and August 1966 and 1967. The following age classes are proposed on this basis: 1) First year class. This group consists of individuals hatched in late summer or early fall. They are evidently planktonic at first and_ start appearing in the sand when they are 10-15 mm in length. Specimens as small as 10 mm could probably wriggle through the openings of the sieve used in the study. However, samples of sand, treated with formalin, were carefully searched without success for specimens smaller than 10 mm. Some members probably attain 30 mm total length and sexual maturity during the year. Members of this age group are especially noticeable on histograms for September, October, and November (Fig. 1). 2) Second year class. This age group averages around 35 mm in the fall as shown on some of the September through December graphs. This portion of the population grows and matures sexually until it averages 40-45 mm in length during the summer, May-August (Fig. 2). 3) Third year class. This group peaks on the graphs around 50-55 mm with a few members reaching 60 mm in length. The mean class length shifts slightly downward in September and November. Presumably this year NELSON: Amphioxus in Tampa Bay 99 class fluctuates with the removal of older members by death and addition of new members from the second year class. If these interpretations are correct, B. caribaeum does not exceed four years of age in Old Tampa Bay. It is evident from the histograms that the amphioxus population varied somewhat in its length classes from year to year between 1963 and 1967. Some of the variation may be credited to sampling procedures and some to environmental influences. A severe freeze or the actions of drastic storms like hurricanes (one occurred during the period of the study) are influential events in the life of the shallow water organism. After allowing for this annual variation, there still remains a general picture of spawning during the fall months and maturation of age groups during the remainder of the year. Densiry DETERMINATIONS Attempts to obtain an accurate measure of density were not particularly successful. The number of animals per liter of sand varied from 0-15 depending on which portion of the sandbar was sampled. In an area four miles from my collecting site E. L. Pierce (1965) recorded an average of 183 specimens per liter in one series of dredge hauls. Boschung and Gunter (1962) estimate that B. caribaeum in Mississippi Sound seem to be numbered in billions. It is encouraging to encounter an organism that evidently is not threatened by man’s use and misuse of the environment. SUMMARY The amphioxus Branchiostoma caribaeum dwells in sandy areas of Old Tampa Bay in considerable numbers. The population spawns during the fall of the year. Sexual maturity is reached at about 30 mm in length. Length frequency data are interpreted as showing three age classes, namely: 1) less than one year old, specimens up to about 30 mm total length; 2) second year class, specimens 30-50 mm long; 3) third year class, 45-60 mm long. Accurate density determinations were unsuccessful. The Bay appears to support large numbers of Branchiostoma in spite of intense human use of the area. 100 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED Anprews, E. A. 1893. An undescribed acraniate: Asymmetron lucayanum. Johns Hopkins Univ. Biol. Lab. Stud., vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 213-247. BONE, QUENTIN. 1958. Observations upon the living larva of amphioxus. Pubbl. Staz. Zool. Napoli, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 458-471. BoscuHuNnc, HERBERT V. AND G. GunTeER. 1962. Distribution and variation of Branchiostoma caribaeum in Mississippi Sound. Tulane Stud. Zool., vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 245-257. CaruisLeE, D. B. 1951. On the hormonal and neural control of the release of gametes in Ascidians. Jour. Exp. Biol., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 463-472. Prerce, E. Lowe. 1965. The distribution of lancelets (Amphioxi) along the coasts of Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 480-494. Wess, J. E. 1958. The ecology of Lagos Lagoon. III. The life history of Branchiostoma nigeriense Webb. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London, series B, vol. 241, no. 683, pp. 335-353. Wess, J. E. anp M. B. Hut. 1958. The ecology of Lagos Lagoon. IV. On the reactions of Branchiostoma nigeriense Webb to its environment. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London, series B, vol. 241, no. 683, pp. 355-391. WricHt, ALBERT A. 1890. Amphioxus in Tampa Bay. Amer. Nat., vol. 24, p. 1085. Life Science Building, University of South Florida, Tampa, Flor- ida 33620. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(2) 1968 (1969) Reproduction and Ecology of the Longnose Killifish RoBERT A. MARTIN AND JOHN H. FINUCANE Atmosr nothing is known about the reproductive behavior and early development of the longnose killifish, Fundulus similis (Baird and Girard). Breder and Rosen (1966) omitted the species in their comprehensive survey of literature on reproduction of fishes. Springer and Woodburn (1960) discussed courtship displayed by this fish in captivity. Simpson and Gunter (1956) noted that spawning occurred in the shallows of Copano Bay, Texas, during July but offered little descriptive data; no eggs were recovered after the presumed spawning had taken place. Male breeding colors were described by Joseph‘and Yerger (1956) and later by Springer and Woodburn (1960). The ecology of F. similis in Tampa Bay, Florida, is incompletely known. Springer and Woodburn (1960) summarized their own and other ecological data. The junior author has contributed addi- tional data on life history from field collections of 1962 to supple- ment knowledge of the local distribution, seasonal occurrence, spawning, growth, and environmental tolerances of the species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fish were preserved in a neutralized 10 per cent formalin solu- tion. Field specimens were measured to the nearest millimeter and aquarium specimens to the nearest 0.1 millimeter of standard and total lengths. Weights were recorded to the nearest 0.01 gram on a triple-beam chemical balance. A breeding pair of Fundulus similis, a large gravid female (111.6 mm SL) and a mature male (46.3 mm), collected by seine in Boca Ciega Bay near Three Palms Point on March 30, 1967, was placed with other fish in a 30-gallon tank containing filtered sea water (see Table 1). When courtship began, the other occupants of the tank were removed; the parents were also removed after spawning to prevent them from eating the eggs. An inspection of egg masses on the third day of development indicated that conditions in the original aquarium were not optimal for growth and survival. A number of eggs were then transferred 102 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to a 1,000-ml beaker containing dilute sea water (Table 1), where they remained until they hatched or were preserved. Newly hatched fry were transferred to a 30 gallon aquarium and maintained on a diet of live brine shrimp and dry food (Tetra- marin ) [Reference to trade names in this publication does not imply endorsement of commercial products]. Water quality was similar TABLE 1 Water quality in laboratory experiments Laboratory equipment Salinity Temperature Oxygen (%) (2c) (ppm ) pH Spawning aquarium 34.5 DAL) Sy 8.2 Hatching beaker 19.0 24.0-26.9 5.7-6.2 8.1 Rearing aquarium 20.4-22.8 24 .0-26.9 5.7-6.2 8.1 to that in the beaker. With the exception of salinity, the water conditions resembled those in the original aquarium where spawn- ing occurred (Table 1). Aquariums were supplied with air and contained silica sand, subsand filters, coral rocks, and plastic plants. Ecological studies consisted of monthly and bimonthly collec- tions of fish and water quality data at 18 sampling sites in 1962 throughout Tampa Bay (Fig. 1). All specimens were collected with a 70-ft nylon beach seine having a body and bag of %-inch stretch mesh. A 30-ft minnow seine was used at a few stations where bottom conditions did not permit the use of the larger net. Water temperature was measured in the field with a standard mercury thermometer to the nearest O.1 C. A modified Van Dorn sampling bottle (Van Dorn, 1957) was used to collect water sam- ples. Salinity in parts per thousand was determined through titra- tion by the Mohr-Knudsen method (Knudsen, 1901). Oxygen was determined by the spectrophotometric method of Austin (1949). The pH determinations were made with a Beckman pH meter. CouRTSHIP AND SPAWNING Courtship in the aquarium began shortly after the captive pair was introduced on March 30, 1967. (Fig. 2). This ritual was fol- lowed by five successive spawnings, and ceased after about 2 hours (1630-1830). Courtship by the male was centered about the head MARTIN AND FINUCANE: Longnose Killifish 103 C ILLSBOROUGH BAY @ Cc [-— n \ ST. PETERSBURG By. bre, 41O LITTLE MANATEE RIVER o NAUTICAL MILES OoIXIW OF tz simran 5 | MANATEE Zee. | Fig. 1. Map of Tampa Bay, Florida, showing sampling stations where Fundulus similis was caught in 1962. of his much larger mate. His frantic swimming and vibrant color changes often halted the female. She tended to remain nearly stationary but occasionally darted off in a new direction, and once moved to the bottom where she appeared to be testing the suit- ability of the substrate. Three swimming patterns were followed incessantly by the male: (1) tight figure-eight, passing beneath the female’s snout, (2) broad circle, coursing counterclockwise, and 104 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MARTIN AND FINUCANE: Longnose Killifish 105 (3) elongate oval, following the same course as the preceding, but often passing close enough to the sides of the female’s body to brush her. As the tempo of courtship increased, forays to the vent resulted in the male’s nipping and brushing the anal fin and region of the ovipositor. While he followed the oval or circular course, the male tended to erect his vertical fins and display exceptional colors. Transient dark zones appeared on the snout and behind the eye. Flanks of the body became violet and green. The normally promi- nent series of dark vertical bars characteristic of the species were indistinct at this time. Immediately before spawning, the male passed very close to the flanks of his mate and brushed them. The circular movements had become a compressed oval. In response to the antics of her mate, the female suddenly in- terrupted her forward movement as though faltering. Next, she darted forward an inch or two only to reverse this movement by backing up an equal distance. These opposing movements contin- ued for several moments, but gradually became more restricted until they constituted an anterior-posterior rocking action. At the peak of this activity, the female suddenly became almost motionless but quivering, and she approached the substrate to begin deposition of the eggs. The female suddenly swam to a position just above the selected spot, where she hovered for a moment. A sudden wriggling move- ment created a furrow in the sand where the first eggs were ex- truded. As she moved forward in the sand, deposition of more eggs was accompanied by flips of the caudal fin which sent sand flying (Fig. 2b) and served to cover the eggs. The male was often dif_i- cult to follow at the time of fertilization because he appeared to parallel the female or follow closely during the height of the sand flinging. On one occasion he swam or rode on her back near the dorsal fin as the eggs were being deposited. After completion of spawning the female remained near the covered eggs (Fig. 2c). We found no well developed “contact organs” such as those described by Myers (1931) and others for males of the tribe Fundulini; the exact method of fertilization was not observed. Fig. 2. Courtship and spawning activity of Fundulus similis. From top to bottom, (a) male executes figure-eight movement beneath snout of female; (b) spawning act: female deposits eggs in sand accompanied by male; (c) spawn- ing is completed. 106 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT Five distinct clusters of eggs, each deposited at a different time and location, were removed for embryonic study. They were cov- ered to a depth of % to %4 inch with sand. A total of 457 eggs was counted. Only 35 healthy eggs were selected for future study, (a, upper left) 8 ) 11 days old; (c, lower left) 12 days old, immediately before hatching; (d, lower Fundulus similis showing different degrees of development: Fig. 3. Eggs and fry of days old; (b, upper right right) newly hatched fry. MARTIN AND FINUCANE: Longnose Killifish 107 since many were infested with parasitic worms or fungus on the third day of development. Eggs were 2.8 to 2.9 mm diameter and spherical, but somewhat flattened at the poles. Yolks were oily and non-granular (Fig. 3). TABLE 2 Stages of embryonic development in F. similis. Stages are those of Lagler, Bardach, and Miller (1962). Age (hours) Stage Stage and description 0-2 12, Unfertilized and newly fertilized eggs. 2-4 3 Two-celled stage. ISeIt7 ee Late blastula and early gastrula. 22-24 13,14 Middle gastrula and late gastrula. 39-41 15,16 Primitive pit-stage and neural tube stage. 44-46 16,17,18 Neural tube to 8-10 somite stages. 64-66 20 Twenty-five or more somites; heart formed and pulsating: lens and optic cup formed. 66-68 21 Embryo twitching inside egg; twenty-eight or more somites. 88-90 22,23 Circulation clearly established; blood has color; olfactory placode present; forebrain thickening; midbrain and cerebellum well differentiated. 112-114 22,23 Pectoral fin bud forming. 118-120 23 Retina heavily pigmented. 139-141 23,24 Pectoral fin bud present; otoliths formed; little if any pig- ment inside body or near body surface. 160-162 26 Caudal fin being delimited; semicircular canals formed; eyes not moving; eye with refractive layer; black pig- ment on top of head, and in two principal rows along sides of body. 189-191 28,29 Peritoneal walls pigmented; olfactory bulbs formed; pec- toral fin mobile; yolk mass occupies about % inner mass of egg. 207-209 30 Caudal rays formed; heart with bulbous atrial ventricular portions; yolk mass occupies about %3 of egg mass. Ue awss) Sil Lower jaw well formed and moving; gill opening and mouth operating in mock respiratory movements; eyes moving; liver primordium present; yolk occupies about Y% of inner mass of egg. 258-260 32,33 First embryos hatched; some yolk still present; pigmenta- tion extended to sides of body. 282-310 — All eggs except two hatched. 482-484 — Last two eggs hatched. 108 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Detailed embryonic studies were not made because develop- ment closely resembled that of other species in the same genus. Development of several stages is summarized for the most advanced embryos (Table 2). The stages follow those given by Lagler, Bar- dach, and Miller (1962) for Fundulus heteroclitus. Hatching time at temperatures of 75.2 to 80.4 F (24 to 26.9 C) varied from 11 to ‘13 days for most eggs, but two did not hatch until the 20th day. GROWTH RATE IN AQUARIUMS Length measurements and weights of aquarium-reared juveniles indicate that growth was rapid (Table 3). Fry measured 7.3 mm TABLE 3 Development of aquarium-reared specimens of F. Similis. One fish selected at random was weighed and measured for each date listed. Date Weight Standard Length Total Length (1967 ) (grams ) (mm ) (mm ) April 1s 0.01 8 9.0 19 0.02 11.1 14.2 26 0.07 16.0 19.8 May 3 0.11 18.3 23.0 10 O25 Baul 28.9 17 0.36 26.7 32.9 23 0.41 28.2 34.8 31 0.46 29.0 SIDI June 7 0.43 29.8 36.3 14 0.50 30.4 36.6 SL at hatching. Adult form was reached in the 6th or 7th week after hatching, and specimens approached the size of the male used in the experiment after about 10 weeks. ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION Fundulus similis is the most abundant cyprinodont in Tampa Bay. A total of 4,762 specimens were collected at 18 sampling sites during monthly and bimonthly seine sampling in 1962 (Fig. 1 and Table 4). Although the species was caught throughout Tampa Bay, 109 Longnose Killifish MARTIN AND FINUCANE: v'6V 0'0V 6 LS cae US 6 8P Vv OV SEV GEE cvs TT9 L v9 ( wut ) Yysuo] piepur}s ISVIOAYV COLV GV 8&9 GSS GLE OSV 6G8 096 00S GLG 696 18 v6 [239,L =e ez = Lf a = oo ee = ae a = P THYMUS : © * THYROID e- * SPLEEN e— ADRENAL © * PITUITARY + @—_i> ABS.WT. @ KIDNEY @ * REL.WT. * SUBMAX © * TESTES @ : * SEM.VES. @ * .001 .01 05 .1 NSO NSD .1 .05 .O1 .0O1 LEVEL OF SIGNIF. Fig. 9. Comparison of organ weights of DP and DF: males. This shows the statistical magnitude of difference between the smaller absolute weights and larger relative weights of organs of DF: rats. Actual mean values are shown in Tables 3-6. 258 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The phenomenon of apparent hypertrophy was consistent in other male organs. We found that mean absolute organ weights were smaller in young adults (DF,) than in older adults (DP), but that mean relative organ weights were greater. Figure 9 shows the statistical magnitudes of difference between generations. Two ex- ceptions to this generalization were absolute weights of thymus and relative weights of seminal vesicles. Both exceptions are predict- able as a function of the ontogeny of the organs. The thymus begins to regress after puberty (Bloom et al., 1962), and F, males would be expected to have larger absolute thymus weights. Semi- nal vesicles, as accessory sex organs, begin to develop at puberty (Turner, 1966). Although cytological evidence of spermatogenesis indicated that all DF, males were sexually mature, seminal vesicles of some had not reached maximal development when sacrificed. Thus, very different interpretations of organ weight responses can be made depending on the measurement arbitrarily selected. The regressions of organ weight against body weight (Figs. 4-7) showed that the consistent shifts in differences of mean organ weights were more a function of growth rate than of changes in organ weights. This is illustrated by a comparison of regressions of both absolute and relative organ weights to body weights. A marked similarity appears in the regressions of absolute weights of both adrenals and testes on body weight (Figs. 4-5). Both show a positive slope. The fact that there is no significant difference among the slopes suggests that the groups were not dif- ferent from each other. Experimental conditions apparently did not significantly affect the relationship of absolute organ weight to body weight. These figures substantiate the expectation that larger animals tend to have larger organs. Thus, we can expect the organs of the younger adults (DF,) to be smaller than organs of older adults (DP). This is shown by the left side of Fig. 9. If the stress syndrome had been acting in the dense population we would have expected the slope of adrenal weights to rise more steeply than that of the testes (Figs. 4 and 5). A marked similarity of slopes also appears in the regressions of relative weights of adrenals and testes on body weight (Figs. 6-7). Both slopes are negative. There is a significant difference among the slopes of relative weights of adrenals (P, .04) and of testes VAN VLECK AND GENTLE: Growth in Rats 959 (P<.001). The differences are accounted for by the slopes of the DF, group, and suggest that our experimental conditions signifi- cantly affected the relationship of relative organ weight to body weight in the DF, generation. But the similarity of the correlations F (37,25) ADULTS (30, 26) WEIGHT gr 100 150 200 AGE days Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of growth rates in D cages based on bi- weekly weight averages. The vertical bars show the weight ranges within each group. The differences in mean weights between DF: and D parents were (a) males, 82 g and (b) females, 39 g. N is given in parentheses for males and females respectively. in Fig. 6-7 suggests that both relationships were affected by a com- mon factor. The factor that most affected relative weights was the denomi- nator of the ratio (organ wt: body wit.) and not the numerator. Fig. 10 shows that DF, males were a heterogeneous group with re- gard to growth characteristics. Animals at the lower end of the F, weight range were younger, rapidly growing individuals. Ratios of relative organ weights calculated during this period tend to be high (dependent on the ontogeny of the organ), just as LWR’s tend to be high because younger individuals are proportionally thinner. This is shown on the right side of Fig. 9. Animals at the higher end 260 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the F, weight range were older individuals, whose growth rate had begun to level off. Both relative organ ratios and LWR’s tend to decrease as individuals become older and_ proportionately heavier. The marked negative slopes of DF, males in Figs. 6-7 re- flect the heterogeneity of the sample and are primarily a function of differential growth characteristics within the F, group. The regres- sions in Fig. 6-7 are linear representations of the inverse image of the growth curve shown in Fig. 10. The marked negative slope of DF, males reflects the rapid growth phase shown in Fig. 10, and the moderate slopes of older adults reflect the phase of slower growth. The differences in organ weights between DF, and DP females were not as marked nor as consistent as for males (Tables 3-8). Absolute weights were not always smaller and relative weights were not always larger. This can be attributed to differential growth rates between the sexes. Males grew faster for a longer period of time than did the females (Fig. 10). The greater number of days required by females in all! experimental conditions to grow from 100 to 180 g (Fig. 3) indicates that female growth rates decreased within this weight range. Biweekly weight records for females verify this fact. Fig. 10 shows that, when sacrificed, the weights of F, females were more closely approaching maximum levels than were the weights of F, males. The difference in maximum body weights between DF, and DP males was 58 g, while the difference between maximum female body weights was only 5 g. Females of the DF, and DP generations were more homogeneous in growth characteristics; therefore, the disparity in organ weights caused by differential growth rate was minimized. A comparison of mean weights of organs is valid only when homogeneous samples are compared. In studies that involve field populations of unknown age, the homogeneity of samples is usually based on sexual maturity. However, sexual maturation precedes physical maturation (maximum somatic growth). For instance, Calhoun (1962) found that wild female Norway rats may begin to ovulate as early as 40 days of age even though reproductive be- havior is not mature until between 80 to 115 days. He also showed that maximum growth (and minimum LWRs) did not occur until the age of 250 days. His study indicated that sexual maturation may occur more than 150 days prior to physical maturation in the Norway rat. The interval between sexual and physical maturation VAN VLECK AND GENTLE: Growth in Rats 261 : r=.4 : 16= AD ACL ter tudes: sale Fe og DHityy saokwies gc : oS * e8 : Beret violt: goet a ae is5 eaggal =e Mies 3 6 .13b 2 +042 < : 5 ° o west i Ww 12> .038 Q it : < We +=.034 : ere < Oo: o +.030 : E DI Rane fe ae ors ores 2s Da ccuiaadicantallnocataviadoatved aed’ 0 10 20 30 NO. ANIMALS Fig. 11. Regressions of male relative and absolute adrenal weights cor- related with the final number of rats per cage. Star within circle, 2 points. varies widely between species, but the results of this study suggest that sexual maturity does not necessarily define comparable homo- geneous samples. The consistant disparity in organ weights (Fig. 9) indicates that a comparison between DF, and DP groups is not valid even though all animals were sexually mature. The age structure of a population (ratio of young adults to older adults) therefore assumes great importance in the interpretation of responses of organ weights, as illustrated by the following results. If the animals in this study had been trapped in a field popula- tion, and if the criterion for homogeneous samples was sexual ma- turity, F, and parent animals would have been considered as a single group. When absolute weights of adrenals from DF, and DP are pooled and the mean weights of all cages of all populations are plotted against the final number of animals in each cage, the 262 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES slope of the regression is negative (Fig. 11). The absolute weights of adrenals of DF, rats were lower than their parents and there was a sufficient number of DF, males to weight cage means in the direc- tion evidenced by the DF, group. However, the correlation coefh- cient (r, .07) indicates a random relationship between absolute weights of adrenals and density, despite the negative slope of the regression. On the other hand, when relative weights of adrenals from both generations were pooled and plotted in the same way, relative weights of adrenals correlated positively and significantly with population density (r, .45; P<.1). The positive correlation shown in Fig. 11 could be logically interpreted as adrenal hyper- trophy in response to density. It is, however, a spurious result of the age structure of the D population. Relative weights of adrenals of DF, rats were higher than those of their parents because of dif- ferential growth characteristics, and because D cage means were numerically weighted in the direction of F, males. No such corre- lation occurred when mean relative weights of organs of homo- geneous groups (parent generation from each cage) were corre- lated with population density. The reduced rate of growth of the D populations, particularly of DF, animals (Fig. 3), undoubtedly contributed to the greater strength of the positive correlation shown bay sores, IU The strength of the correlations shown in Fig. 11 is not as im- portant as is the fact that the same adrenal glands from the same animals were used to demonstrate both a positive and a negative slope, as well as a significant and a non-significant relationship to population density. Inspection of mean organ weights (Table 3) and a comparison of the differences in weights between generations (Fig. 9) shows that similar contradictory slopes would result for most organs studied. Neither slope in Fig. 11 defines specific organ weight responses to population density, however. The contradic- tory slopes are a function of the age structure of this population. Changing age structure during fluctuations of populations is well illustrated in the literature (Odum, 1959; Crowcroft, 1966). Newson (1963) found that a population of voles contained animals of all sizes only at the height of the breeding season. He also found that the variance of body weights, which is a measure of the hetero- geneity of the sample, was high during the breeding season. The variance tended to fall during the non-breeding season as the age structure of the population became more homogeneous. VAN VLECK AND GENTLE: Growth in Rats 263 Bre ts Ei: =e Sie: gE : EF > Se e : O 1: 2 : = | spnennonenecel bennagaannen| Aoodaccnenod Nooonddodond nsoncoocend lcnargonocod Pandencocono nasndencogcn eet ADRENALS mg/g Fig. 12. Correlation cf LWR and relative weight of adrenals of a field population of the cotton rat. (r, .97; P<.001). The following example illustrates how age structure and growth rate might result in a relationship that could be interpreted as “causal” rather than “coincidental”. During a study of brown lem- mings in Alaska, samples that were collected in June in a declining population consisted of old, adult animals (Pitelka, 1957). Environ- mental conditions were described as favorable. Males and females evidenced a 35 and 30 per cent increase in weight, respectively, over a two-week interval. From mean weights and lengths that were presented, we calculated mean LWRs. They decreased from 2.9 to 2.2 for females and from 2.6 to 2.0 for males. Although Pitelka gave no organ weight data, relative organ weights would probably decrease as a function of the marked weight gain, just as LWH’s decreased. A decrease in relative organ weights under these circumstances would be only coincidental to a decrease in population density. The relationship between relative weights of organs and LWRs exists by virtue of their common denominator, body weight. Gener- ally, relative organ weights will tend to decrease as LWR’s decrease. Fig. 12 shows a predictably high positive correlation (r, .97; P<.001) between relative weights of adrenals and LWRs in a field population of Sigmodon hispidus. Fig. 13 illustrates the similarity in the relationship of the same relative adrenal weights and LWRs 264 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES eee Pet: | . 4 2 : pu iy re as [| | = 3 re a = ° Tel | 7 | 2 ” = 25: | i TW ee a | | | ih) | | | aye G: | | A Sa Tees | | Ate ene = 1.05 se , | | y 1 “ae | Ae ele ih a) ata E 15 : eli) I = 2 aM e@ °e je nae a 2 1.0= uid = ad = Teuescacerssedasversvarerlunsavacversulessagavnvecelsssctevensclascrvesevel vucacnecadeokuvuisarrsaselerturaxtivelseaneretneel oeantneaniee WEIGHT g Fig. 13. Relative adrenal weights (squares) and length-to-weight ratios (circles), plotted against body weight for a field population of Sigmodon his- pidus. Vertical lines connect points representing individual animals. to individual body weights and shows that both relative organ ratios and LWkRs tend to decrease as body weight increases. If high LWERs correspond with high relative organ weights, it is likely that growth rate is the primary factor involved. The practicability of LWRs in defining a homogeneous group within a field population is also illustrated in Fig. 13. Age was necessarily an unknown factor; therefore LWRs were plotted against body weights. The curve levels off at approximately 100 g or at an LWR of approximately 1.5 or less. Animals above this weight and below this LWR constitute a homogeneous group. The point at which such a curve levels off may vary greatly, even for the same species, depending on environmental conditions. How- ever, the LWR can be used to identify groups of animals of com- parable somatic maturity. Once this is established, there is no need to convert absolute organ weights to relative weights in order to compensate for size differences. The conversion of organ weights of homogeneous groups may even lead to spurious conclusions if environmental conditions are different for the two samples being compared. A significant difference in LWRs indicates that a sig- nificant difference of relative organ weights in the same direction is meaningless. VAN VLECK AND GENTLE: Growth in Rats 965 RY LLELLLLL % in age class Fig. 14. Relationship of age distribution and any point in an expanding or declining population. Proportionally more sexually mature but somatically immature individuals are found in the increasing population. Fig. 13 shows that the results of a comparison of adrenal weights may be misleading when the age structure of the population nu- merically weights a sample at either end of the maturity range. A schematic diagram of a population fluctuation and the changing age structure is presented in Fig. 14. When a sample consists pri- marily of young adults, a situation which might be encountered in an increasing population, mean relative weights of adrenals and LWkRs tend to be higher and mean absolute weights of adrenals tend to be lower. On the other hand, relative adrenal weights and LWkRs tend to be lower and absolute adrenal weights tend to be higher in a sample that consists primarily of older adults such as might be encountered in a decreasing population. Significant dit- ferences between mean weights of organs sampled at the peak and trough of a fluctuation may be more indicative of the age structure 266 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the two populations than of physiological responses of specific organs to environmental conditions. Our conclusion is that in a study of natural populations great care must be taken to compare organ weights of similar animals. When organs of animals from populations of high and low density are compared, a homogeneous sample from each population must be used. The LWR is a parameter to ascertain this homogeneity. Without such a standard, relative and absolute organ weights may reflect the body weight and the age structure of the population in- stead of the density of the population. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are indebted to Dr. Earl Rich and Miss Iris Kiem of the University of Miami for their advice on statistical matters. Others who contributed to the collection of data were Grace Careno, Mau- reen O'Connor, William Batty, and George Edwards. This work was supported by NSF grant GU 1670 sub 10. LITERATURE CITED BARNETT, S. A. 1963. The rat: A study in behavior. Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago. BLoom, WILLIAM, and Don W. Fawcerr. 1962. Histology. W. B. Saun- ders, Philadelphia. CaLHOouN, JOHN B. 1961. Determinants of social organization exemplified in a single population of domesticated rats. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 23, pp. 437-442. 1932. The ecology and sociology of the Norway rat. Public Health Service Publication No. 1008. Supt. Doc., Washington, D.C. Cuitry, Dennis. 1957. Self-regulation of numbers through changes in via- bility. Cold Springs Harbor Symp., vol. 22, pp. 277-280. CHRISTIAN, JOHN J. 1956. Adrenal and reproductive responses to population size in mice from freely growing populations. Ecol., vol. 37, pp. 258- HTB. 1963. Endocrine adaptive mechanisms and the physiologic regulation of population growth. In: Physiological mammalogy, Academic Press, New York. ———, James A. Lioyp, and Davi E. Davis. 1965. The role of endocrines in the self-regulation of mammalian populations. Rec. Prog. Hormone Res., vol. 21, pp. 501-578. CrowcroFt, PETER. 1966. Mice all over. The Whitefriars Press, London. VAN VLECK AND GENTLE: Growth in Rats 267 FARRIS, EDMOND, AND JOHN GriFFITH, Jr. (eds.). 1949. The rat in labora- tory investigation. Hafner Publ., Co., Inc., New York. Grant, E. C. 1963. An analysis of the social behavior of the male laboratory rat. Behavior, vol. 21, pp. 260-281. Hetmreicu, R. L. 1960. Regulation of reproduction rate by intrauterine mortality in the deer mouse. Sci., vol. 132, pp. 417-418. HorrMaAN, R. S. 1958. The role of reproduction and mortality in population fluctuations of voles (Microtus ) Ecol. Mono., vol. 28, pp. 79-109. Horn, E. O. 1967. The relevance of J. Christian’s theory of a density- dependent endocrine population regulating mechanism to the problem of population regulation in birds. Ibis, vol. 109, pp. 445-446. Lioyp, JAMEs A., AND JoHN J. CuristiAn. 1967. Relationship of activity and aggression to density in two confined populations of house mice (Mus musculus). Jour. Mam., vol. 48, pp. 262-269. Newson, Rosin. 1963. Differences in numbers, reproduction and survival between two neighboring. populations of bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). Ecol., vol. 44, pp. 110-120. OpuM, EucGENE P. 1959. Fundamentals of ecology. W. B. Saunders, Phila- delphia. PireLkKa, Frank A. 1957. Some aspects of population structure in the short- term cycle of the brown lemming in northern Alaska. Cold Springs Harbor Sym. Quant. Biol., vol. 22, pp. 237-251. SELYE, Hans. 1950. Stress. Acta, Inc., Montreal, Canada. SoutHwick, C. H. 1955. Regulatory mechanisms of house mouse popula- tions: social behavior affecting litter survival. Ecol., vol. 36, pp. 627- 634. Spermrs, RosertT S., AND Rotanp Kk. Meyers. 1949. The effects of stress, adrenal and adrenocorticotrophic hormones on the circulating eosino- phils of mice. Endoc., vol. 45, pp. 403-429. STEINBERG, H., AND R. H. J. Watson. 1960. Failure of growth in disturbed laboratory rats. Nature, vol. 185, pp. 615-616. TurNeER, C. DonNELL. 1966. General endocrinology. W. B. Saunders, Phila- delphia. VessEy, STEPHEN H. 1964. Effects of grouping on levels of circulating anti- bodies in mice. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., vol. 115, pp. 252-255. Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 (present address of senior author: Department of Biology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont 05753.) Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(4) 1968 (1969) Pugheadedness in the Spotted Seatrout Curt D. Rose anp AtvaA H. Harris PUGHEADEDNESS has been described in many teleost fishes ( Daw- son, 1964, 1966), but the presence of this anomaly in a spotted seatrout, Cynscion nebulosus (Cuvier), is apparently the first re- cord of occurrence in the family Sciaenidae. Gudger (1930) described structural malformations accompany- ing this condition. Mansueti (1960) reported environment and heredity (not physical injury) to be probable causative factors. Eigenmann (1894) thought malformation in Cymatogaster aggre- gata was due to overcrowding after hatching from the egg. Mansueti (1958) observed pugheaded and normal siblings that hatched from eggs of the same parents. Isaacson (1965) removed 14 pugheaded embryos (a typical complement of young for a fe- male of the size observed) from a phenotypically normal black perch, Embiotoca jacksoni. These two reports strongly suggest a genetical basis for the anomaly. The pugheaded spotted seatrout (Fig. 1) was captured by hook-and-line on 3 April 1968 in Lake Chauvin, Louisiana. The specimen was an adult female weighing 438 g and measuring 302 mm standard length. Scale analysis revealed a decidedly slower growth rate after first annular formation than is typical of the species. Scales exhib- ited six year-marks with the most recent having just been formed at the margin. Calculated standard length at annulus VI of trout collected from the Texas coast was 440 mm (Pearson, 1929). Trout collected from western Florida averaged 430 mm at time of sixth annular formation (Welsh and Breder, 1924). Length at- tained by the pugheaded specimen approximates size characteristic of normal 3-year-old fish. Evidently, feeding efficiency of the fish was significantly limited by the pugheaded condition. This information was obtained during an investigation entitled “Shrimp production in Louisiana salt-marsh impoundments under existing and managed conditions,’ which was supported by the Sea Grant Program of the National Science Foundation. RosE AND Harris: Pugheaded Trout 269 Fig. 1. Pugheaded spotted seatrout, 302 mm standard length, with nor- mal counterpart above. LITERATURE CITED Dawson, C. E. 1964. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Gulf Res. Repts., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 309-399. 270 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1966. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes—supplement 1. Gulf Res. Repts., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 169-176. EIGENMANN C. H. 1894. On the viviparous fishes of the Pacific coast of North America. U.S. Fish. Comm. Bull., no. 12, pp. 371-478. Gupcer, E. W. 1930. Pugheadedness in the striped sea bass, Roccus lineatus, and in other related fishes. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 61, pp. 1- 19. IsAAcsON, PETER A. 1965. Pugheadedness in the black perch, Embiotoca jacksoni. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., vol. 94, no. 1, p. 98. MansueTI, RoMEO J. 1958. Eggs, larvae, and young of the striped bass, Roccus, saxatilis. Maryland Dept. Res. and Educ., Contrib. 112, pp. 1- BOF ———. 1960. An unusually large pugheaded striped bass, Roccus saxatilis, from Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. Chesapeake Sci., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. IMS}. PEARSON, JOHN C. 1929. Natural history and conservation of redfish and other commercial Sciaenidae of Texas. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fish., no. 44(1046), pp. 129-214. WeELcH, WILLIAM W., AND G. M. BrepER, Jr. 1924. Contributions to the life history of Sciaenidae of the east U. S. coast. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., no. 39(945), pp. 141-201. Division of Marine Science, Nicholls State College, Thibodaux, Louisiana 70801. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(4) 1968( 1969 ) Baby Loggerhead Turtles Associated with Sargassum Weed Davin K. CALDWELL In evaluating theories to expalin the disappearance of young sea turtles during their first year or so of life, Carr (1967a, 1967b) discussed the possibility that they may shelter and feed in sargas- sum rafts, and cited word-of-mouth observations to support the idea. Smith (1968) reported a neonate loggerhead that was captured at sea in a net along with sargassum weed and juvenile fishes characteristic of ‘the sargassum community. It is likely that the turtle had been associated with weed, but it cannot be said for certain since the net was towed for about two miles and Smith also reported young loggerheads that were seen on the surface at other times that were not associated with weed, and cited other similar records. During late October, 1968, a series of strong northeasterly winds littered the open Atlantic beaches in northeastern Florida with large amounts of fresh sargassum weed. Following each of these blows, persons brought live baby loggerheads, Caretta caretta caret- ta, to Marineland of Florida. The turtles had been found on the beach associated with the weed; they were brought to us in groups of one to six. Their condition varied from almost dead to vigorous, probably depending on the length of time in the sun on the beach. Healthy ones were fed for several days and released. One that died was deposited in the collections of the Florida State Museum (UF 27019). Carapace length, measured in a straight line, was 586 mm; since this is larger than any reported loggerhead at hatching in this region, it clearly indicates that the turtle had been living at sea for a month or two (Caldwell, Carr, and Hellier, 1956; Caldwell, 1962). Several of the turtles had light encrustations of the bryozcans and worm tubes typical of sargassum weed communities, suggest- ing that the turtles had been in association with the weed for scme time. Archie Carr and Melba C. Caldwell kindly made helpful com- ments on this manuscript. 2712 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED CALDWELL, Dayip Kk. 1962. Growth measurements of young captive Atlantic sea turtles in temperate waters. Los Angeles County Mus., Cont. in Sci. no: O05 pp. 1-6: CALDWELL, Davin K., ArRcHTE Carr, AND THOMAS R. HELLIER, JR. 1956. Natural history notes on the Atlantic loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta caretta. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 292-302, (for 1955). Carr, ARCHIE. 1967a. So excellent a fishe. The Natural History Press, Garden City, N. Y. 248° pp. ———. 1967b. Adaptive aspects of the scheduled travel of Chelonia. In Storm, Robert M., editor, Animal orientation and navigation. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis, pp. 35-55. SmirH, W. G. 1968. A neonate Atlantic loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta caretta, captured at sea. Copeia, 1968, pp. 880-881. Marineland Research Laboratory, St. Augustine, Florida 32084. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(4) 1968 (1969) Lower Oligocene Amphibians from Saskatchewan J. ALAN HoLMANn Marinty through the invention and maintenance of an ingenious matrix processing machine by personnel of the Saskatchewan Mu- seum of Natural History, the list of more than 40 species of verte- brates known from the Cypress Hills formation of Saskatchewan is now beginning to burgeon with microvertebrates. Among the new remains are those of a salamander, Ambystoma, and three anurans, Rhinophrynus, Scaphiopus, and Hyla, whose fossil records are herein pushed back millions of years into the early Oligocene. The locality lies along the north branch of Calf Creek, 10 miles northwest of Eastend, Saskatchewan, in Legal Subdivision 4, sec- tion 8, township 8, range 22 W. 3rd meridian. The elevation is 3,600 feet. Bones were first found in this formation in 1883 (Mc- Connell, 1885), and collections have been made since then by many groups and individuals. Sites have been worked by the Royal On- tario Museum, the National Museum of Canada, and the Sas- katchewan Museum of Natural History. Unfortunately, of late, some private individuals without affiliation with institutions that maintain collections have collected from the locality. Bones reported on in the present paper are the result of system- atic collecting of microvertebrates that has periodically been done since 1960 by field parties of the Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History. Bruce McCorquodale, A. E. Swanston, and R. D. Weigel were particularly instrumental in securing the fossils. Matrix was processed over several field seasons by a special machine main- tained by the Museum, but in September of 1967, R. D. Weigel and J. A. Holman spent several days at the site collecting micro- vertebrates with hand-operated screens. The fossils were collected from a matrix of conglomeratic sandstones and sands, the richest matrix being that that included small clay pellets. Russell (1948) indicates that the Cypress Hills formation is of early Oligocene age, and on the basis of its mammalian remains, in- dicates that it is equivalent to the lowest part of the Chadron for- mation of South Dakota. The sediments of the Cypress Hills for- mation originated in the Rocky Mountains to the southwest and were carried to their present location by streams. The presence of 274 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES deltas, created by streams emptying into temporary lakes, has been suggested. Most of the larger fossils from the deposit represent bronto- theres, rhinoceri, a small three-toed horse, entelodonts, camels, antelopes, oreodonts, anthracotheres, small dogs, medium-sized saber-toothed cats, a bear-like carnivore, crocodiles, and turtles. The smaller vertebrate fossils consist mainly of fragmental remains of rodents, rabbits, insectivores, a small quail, a sandpiper, a cuckoo, lizards, boid snakes, catfishes, bowfins, and gars. Only one amphib- ian, the small burrowing anuran Rhinophrynus canadensis, has pre- viously been reported from the deposit. Early studies of the Cypress Hills include those of Cope (1891) and Lambe (1908); more recent studies include those of Russell (1934, 1936, 1938, 1940, and 1948); and the most recent papers are those of Holman (1963) and Weigel (1963) who respectively re- ported on the first amphibian and bird remains from the deposit. Dr. Loris Russell is presently planning additional studies on the new mammalian material, and [ plan a forthcoming paper on the new reptilian remains. I would here like to extend my appreciation to those members of the Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History who have so gen- erously allowed me to study material collected and curated by them, especially Fred Bard, Bruce McCorquodale, and A. E. Swan- ston. Dr. Robert D. Weigel of Illinois State University helped col- lect and transport the bones and has provided invaluable informa- tion about the deposit. Dr. J. A. Tihen of Notre Dame University kindly discussed the generic identification of the salamander re- mains with me, and Dr. Richard Estes of Boston University identi- fied the pelobatids as well as providing interesting comments about other aspects of the study. Dr. Charles Walker of the University of Michigan loaned recent skeletal material used in the study. My work was supported by National Science Foundation Grant GB- 5988. Donna Rae Holman made the drawings. Family AMBYSTOMATIDAE This family is presently restricted to the New World, ranging from southern Alaska and Hudson Bay through the United States and south into Mexico on the Mexican Plateau. The first record of the family is a paleocene trackway in Sweet- Ot HotMan: Lower Oligocene Amphibians 27! grass County, Montana, described by Peabody (1954) as Amby- stomichnus montanus. This salamander is thought to be similar to the living Dicamptodon, but it is twice as large. Dicamptodon is reported from the lower Pliocene on the basis of trackways (Pea- body, 1959). The genus Ambystoma is first recorded from beds that are trans- itional between uppermost Miocene and lowermost Pliocene times in Brown County, Nebraska by Tihen and Chantell (1963). This form, Ambystoma minshalli is said to be a member of the macula- tum species group of Tihen (1958). The middle Pliocene forms Plioambystoma, Lanebatrachus, and Ogallalabatrachus are thought to be synonyms of the middle Plio- cene salamander Ambystoma kansense (Adams and Martin), a member of the mexicanum species group of Tihen (1958). Only the living species Ambystoma maculatum, A. texanum, and A. tigrinum are known from Pleistocene deposits (Gehlbach, 1965, Holman, 1965). Although the vertebrae of Ambystomatidae are relatively simple in structure, they have been rather widely used in fossil studies. The vertebrae of the Ambystomatidae have an amphicoelous cen- trum (opisthocoelous in the Salamandridae and in some Pletho- dontidae ) that lacks a ventral keel (ventrally keeled in Amphiumi- dae and Sirenidae). The transverse processes are weakly divided distally, but fused proximally (undivided in the Cryptobranchi- dae, some Hynobiidae, Amphiumidae, and Necturidae; strongly divided in most Plethodontidae) and without anterior wings (an- terior wings in Amphiumidae and Sirenidae). The neural arch is simple (eloborated with aliform processes in Sirenidae), and the neural spine is weakly developed (strongly developed in some Salamandridae, Amphiumidae, and Sirenidae; obsolete in the Hyno- biidae ). Tihen (1958) found that the vertebrae of the Ambystomatidae and the Hynobiidae were very similar, except that in the Hyno- biidae the articular facet of the transverse process was not often sharply divided into dorsal and ventral portions, and that the ribs were unicipital. But then he goes on to say “This is not a diagnos- tic family characteristic; some hynobiids have transverse processes with the dorsal and ventral facets completely separated, indistin- guishable from those of ambystomatids”. 276 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In the present study I am most impressed by the similarity of ambystomatid and hynobiid vertebrae. I can only make the dis- tinction that ambystomatid vertebrae usually appear to have a slightly stronger neural spine and a slightly less depressed neural arch. The following ambystomatid and hynobiid skeletons were studied: Hynobius nigrescens (1), Ambystoma cingulatum (1), A. laterale (3), A. mabeei (1), A. macrodactylum (1), A. maculatum (6), A. opacum (2), A. rosaceum (1), A. talpoideum (2), A. texa- num (4), A. tigrinum (13), and Dicamptodon ensatus (1). Ambystoma tiheni sp. nov. Holotype. Trunk vertebra,. Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History No. 1431 (Fig. la). From early Oligocene, Cypress Hills formation, north branch Calf Creek, in L. S. 4, sec. 8 twp. 8, range 22, W. 3rd mer., el. 3,600 ft. Matrix of conglomeratic sand- stone and sands with included clay pellets. Collected by Bruce McCorquodale, A. E. Swanston, and Robert D. Weigel, August, 1963. | Paratype. Trunk vertebra (SMNH 1432, Fig. Ib). Taken by the same collectors at the same locality. Diagnosis. An Ambystoma similar in size and in vertebral pro- portions to the Ambystoma opacum species group of Tihen (1958, p. 19, Table 1), but differs in having (1) the neural arch more depressed, (2) the foramina on the ventral part of the centrum obsolete or absent, (3) the ends of the centrum less widely flared, and (4) the transverse processes usually more robust. Etymology. The species is named in honor of Dr. J. A. Tihen in recognition of his contributions to the knowledge of the osteology of fossil and recent ambystomatid salamanders. Description of holotype. In dorsal view: Prezygapophyseal fa- cets ovaloid, about twice as long as wide; neural arch depressed, neural spine low and thin; centrum extending anterior to anterior edge of neural arch; posterior tip of neural arch ending slightly behind posterior edge of poszygapophyses; transverse processes quite robust, slightly backswept, with their articular facets sharply divided into dorsal and ventral portions. In ventral view: Prezy- gapophyses ovaloid, extending well beyond anterior end of cen- trum; centrum constricted at its middle, with its ends only moder- ately flaring; foramina in centrum obsolete; ventral segment of transverse processes more anteriorly directed than dorsal segment; HotMAN: Lower Oligocene Amphibians TT Fig. 1. A, holotype trunk vertebra (SMNH 1431) of Ambystoma tiheni sp. noy. in dorsal view; B, paratype trunk vertebra (SMNH 1432) of Ambys- toma tiheni sp. nov. also in dorsal view. Each line equals 2 mm. postzygapophyseal faces rounded. Measurements and _ ratios: length through zygapophyses 4.2 mm, width through prezygapo- physes 2.7 mm, width through postzygapophyses 2.8 mm, com- bined zygapophyseal width divided by length through zygapo- physes 1.31. Description of paratype. Differences between the paratype and the holotype are slight and attributable to individual or to intra- columnar variation. The neural arch ends at the level of the pos- terior edge of the postzygapophyses. The neural spine is slightly thicker, and the transverse process is slightly less robust. No foramina are discernable on the ventral side of the centrum. Meas- urements and ratios: length through zygapophyses 3.8 mm, width through prezygapophyses 2.6 mm, width through postzygapophyses 2.4 mm, combined zygapophyseal width divided by length through zygapophyses 1.50. Remarks. The fossil vertebrae fit best with the A. opacum species group (A. opacum and A. talpoideum) on the basis of size and vertebral proportions. But the fossil differs on the basis of some qualitative characters. Definite assignment of Ambystoma tiheni to the opacum group should await more fossil material from Oligocene deposits as well as from the long period of time between 278 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fig. 2. A, holotype left ilium (SMNH 1435) of Hyla swanstoni sp. noy.; B, referred partial tibio-fibula (SMNH 1437). Each line equals 2 mm. early Oligocene and recent times. Nevertheless, the mere sugges- tion that species groups of Ambystoma were established by early Oligocene times is of considerable interest. Family RHINOPHRYNIDAE The sole living species of this family is a burrowing, anteating frog that seemingly comes to the surface only after extremely heavy rains, and that occurs from extreme southern Texas to Cen- tral America as far south as Costa Rica. An extinct rhinophrynid genus, Eorhinophrynus septentrionalis Hecht is known on the basis of an atlas from the middle Eocene of the Bridger formation of Wyoming (Hecht, 1959). The following species was previously reported from the Cypress Hills by Holman (1963). Rhinophrynus canadensis Holman Previous material. Four ilia (one was holotype), two distal femora, and one distal humerus (measurements in Holman, 1963, p. 706-707). New material. One vertebra, 10 humeri, 4 radio-ulnae, 30 femora, 12 tibio-fibulae, six tarsals, 21 ilia (SMNH 1433). HotmMan: Lower Oligocene Amphibians 279 Remarks. In the present study, 16 recent Rhinophrynus dor- salis from a single breeding assemblage in Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico, taken August, 1965, were compared with R. canadensis material. In the recent skeletons the vertebral centra, other than those of the atlas and sacrum, are hour-glass-shaped, biconcave discs, with their notochordal canals large, and in most specimens, completely open. The only evidence of the presence of the intervertebral bodies of Walker (1938) lies in the anterior concavites of the cen- tra, which are partially filled or encircled by roughened bone. The posterior concavities of the centra are much better excavated and entirely lack a bony filling. In one specimen (2279) the anterior concavities of two vertebral centra are completely plugged with roughened bone. Two other specimens (2275 and 2276) each have a single vertebra in this condition. These are the only vetebrae in the 16 specimens (atlases and sacra not included) that lack a perforate centrum. A single fossil has a biconcave, completely perforate centrum and represents a frog of about the size of those represented by the other rhinophrynid elements. But the vertebra is so badly worn that many details of structure are obscured, thus it is only tenta- tively assigned to R. canadensis. The humeri of recent and fossil Rhinophrynus are quite char- acteristic. The previous fossil humerus was only a distal end, but the new material is much more complete. In both living and fossil Rhinophrynus the humeri are short and stout and are not only bowed dorsoventrally, but laterally as well. Two distinct ridges occur on the posterior face of the shaft; a long lateral ridge that runs about three-fourths the length of the shaft, and a shorter medial one that runs about one-third the length of the shaft. But the humeri of the fossils are not as short and stout as those of the recent specimens, and the fossils have less robust processes and ridges, a less robust condyle, and they are less laterally bowed than the recent specimens. The radio-ulnae of the fossil species are also less robust than the recent species. The ilia of R. canadensis have previously been described ( Hol- man, 1963). The new species do not differ trenchantly from the original ones. It is interesting to note that the ilia of the fossils do 280 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES not seem to be less strong or robust than those of the recent R. dorsalis. Most of the femora of the fossils are much less robust than in recent R. dorsalis, with the condyles on the distal end of the femur weak and the two ridges for muscle attachment on the shaft weaker than in recent R. dorsalis. But a few of the larger fossils are almost as robust as the recent bones. The tibio-fibulae of recent and fossil Rhinophrynus are quite characteristic, being exceptionally short and stout, and with expanded ends. Unfortunately, the fos- sils are rather fragmentary and worn, and it is difficult to make sharp comparisons with the recent specimens. It does appear that the fossils are less robust than the recent bones. Measurements of femora and humeri of Rhinophrynus cana- densis compared with seven R. dorsalis from undesignated locali- ties and with the 16 R. dorsalis from the breeding population in Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico (Table 1) show that R. canadensis TABLE 1 Measurements in mm of recent fossil Rhinophrynus (means in parentheses ) Greatest distal width Greatest distal width of femur of humerus R. canadensis DIAM (BUS) m BH 1.:8=3,0 (2AG) en 10 Oligocene R. dorsalis 3 ASAVAS (3291 omy alley DOMED (B74) iy WWE Veracruz R. dorsalis ANORO IS (585) im 7 4.6-6.0 (5.36) n 7 Mexico, locality unknown may have been a smaller frog than R. dorsalis, but probably not as much smaller as previously thought (Holman, 1963). The fact that several of the bones of the appendicular skeleton of R. dorsalis, including the humerus, are shorter and stouter, and have less expanded ends and robust processes; and that the humeri of R. dorsalis are more bowed than the fossil species may indicate that the living form is more adapted for burrowing than the fossil species. HotMAN: Lower Oligocene Amphibians 281 Family PELOBATIDAE This family presently occurs in the United States and Mexico, in Eurasia, the western part of the indo-Australian Archipelago, the Philippines, and the Seychelles. Fossil material, not yet studied in detail or described taxonomi- cally, indicates the family Pelobatidae was present by early Creta- ceous times. Nevo (1956) reports frogs from the lower Cretaceous of Israel with pelobatid features. Estes (1964) reports “Pelobati- dae” from the late Cretaceious Lance formation of eastern Wyom- ing. Pelobatids are well known from the Cenozoic of Europe and North America, and one form, Macropelobates, is known from the Oligocene of Mongolia (Noble, 1924). Recent studies by Zweitfel (1956) and Kluge (1966) have dealt with relatively complete fos- sils from the middle and late Cenozoic. Kluge points out that the iower Miocene form, Scaphiopus neuter, appears to be phylogeneti- cally near the point of divergence of the North American genera Scaphiopus and Svea, and that the two subgenera probably orig- inated by the Oligocene. Richard Estes of Boston University is presently reviewing fos- sil pelobatids, and he has examined and identified the pelobatid remains from the Cypress Hills. He reports to me (in. litt.) that the Cypress Hills pelobatid is the same species that he is planning to describe from the lower Oligocene of North Dakota. Since this North Dakota form is represented by a complete skull and vetebral column, | will defer designating the Cypress Hills form to species. According to Dr. Estes, the pelobatids from the lower Oligocene of North Dakota and from Cypress Hills represent the subgenus Scaphiopus rather than Spea, and they are very similar to recent Scaphiopus holbrooki holbrooki. This indicates the possibility that there were perhaps at least an Eocene dichotomy of the two sub- genera. Scaphiopus sp. Material. One frontoparietal, 16 maxillary fragments, 24 verte- brae, 7 humeri, 8 radio-ulnae, 3 sacrococcyges, 71 ilia (37 left and 34 right), 7 tibio-fibulae (SMNH 1434). Remarks. The frontoparietal bone is relatively complete and well-preserved. It has dermal encrustations present and lacks the 282 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES frontoparietal fontanelle as in the subgenus Scaphiopus. Kluge (1966) reports that the subgenus Spea lacks the dermal encrusta- tion and that it has the frontoparietal fontanelle. The bone is 12.5 mm in length. The 16 maxillary pieces are so fragmentary that it is impossible to accurately discern the shape and extent of their pterygoid processes. Among the seven humeri is a very large specimen that repre- sents a distal end with a greatest width of 8.3 mm. The three sacrococcyges are quite fragmentary and worn. The most com- plete of the three has a moderate degree of postsacral webbing, a condition somewhat similar to “catagory D” of Kluge (1966, Fig. 7). The other two bones are so'worn that it is difficult to determine the degree of webbing present. Most of the ilia are fragmentary. In those ilia with the area that bears the dorsal protuberance of Estes and Tihen (1964) in tact, this protuberance was absent in 22, small in 17, and moderately developed in only six. Kluge has provided information about the relative development of the dorsal protuberance in recent species of Pelobates and Scaphiopus. Be- cause of the fragmentary nature of the ilia it was very difficult to find a measurement that would be standard in all of the bones. The greatest height of the acetabular cup appears to best reflect the size of the bones. This distance is 1.6-4.7 mm (mean, 3.07) in the 29 measureable specimens. Family HyLimar This family has a wide distribution at present, ranging through the New World, Australia and New Guinea, part of Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas, and Africa north of the Sahara. The early part of the fossil record of the group is not clear. Estes (1964) reports “Family incertae sedis, near Hylidae?” from the late Cretaceious Lance formation of eastern Wyoming. In the Tertiary, Amphignathodon of the early Oligocene of Europe was re- ferred to the Hylidae by Piviteau (1927), but this fossil may consist of a mixture of anuran and lizard elements (Chantell, 1964) and needs re-study. Modern hylid genera are first known from the early Miocene of Europe (Schaeffer, 1949) and North America (Auffenberg, 1956 and Holman, 1967) with only one genus (Proacris) considered to be extinct (Holman, 1961). Hylids of late Miocene through Pleis- HotmMan: Lower Oligocene Amphibians 283 tocene times all represent modern genera and are similar or identi- cal to recent species (Chantell, 1964, Gehlbach, 1965, Holman, 1966). The following skeletons were studied in the identification of the hylid material from Cypress Hills: Acris crepitans (15), A. gryllus (6), Anotheca coronata (2), Diaglena reticulata (2), Gas- trotheca marsupiata (1), Hyla arenicolor (7), H. californiae (2), H. cinerea (4), H. crucifer (3), H. ebraccata (1), H. elaeochroa (5), H. eximia (2) H. femoralis (2), H. gratiosa (3), H. miotym- panum (5), H. phaeocrypta (2), H. regilla (6), H. septentrionalis (1), H. squirella (10), H. versicolor (10), H. wrightorum (1), Limnaoedus ocularis (3), Pseudacris nigrita (8), P. ornata (1), P. streckeri (14), P. -ttriseriata (10), Phrynohyas spilomma (2), Phyllomedusa dacnicolor (3), Pternohyla fodiens (3), Smilisca bau- dini (9), and S. phaeota (1). Terminology for the Hyla section follows Chantell (1964). © Hyla swanstoni sp. nov. Holotype. Left ilium, Saskatchewan Museum of Natural His- tory No. 1435 (Fig. 2a). From early Oligocene, Cypress Hills for- mation, north branch of Calf Creek, in L. S. 4, sec. 8, twp. 8, range 22 W. 3rd mer., el. 3,600 ft. Matrix of conglomeratic sandstone and sands with included clay pellets. Collected by Bruce McCor- quodale and A. E. Swanston. Paratype. Left ilium (SMNH 1436) from the same locality and taken by the same collectors. Referred material. Three partial tibio-ibulae (SMNH 1437, Fig. 2b). Diagnosis. A Hyla ilium similar to Hyla miofloridana Holman of the lower Miocene of Florida in its weakly developed dorsal protuberance and in having a groove on the lateral border of the ilium just anterior to the acetabulum, but differing from this species in being smaller, and in having the groove shallower and with an indistinct ventral border. Etymology. The fossil is named in honor of A. E. Swanston of the Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History in recognition of his work in vertebrate paleontology. Description of holotype. The anterior border of the dorsal pro- tuberance ends slightly anterior to the level of the anterior border 284 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the acetabulum, and the protuberance is ovaloid and with its long axis horizontal. Part of the dorsal protuberance has been eroded, but it is weakly developed and projects more laterad than dorsad. The distance between the ventral border of the dorsal pro- tuberance and the border of the acetabulum is only about one- fourth the length of the protuberance. The dorsal acetabular ex- pansion has its tip broken. The acetabular area is rather worn, but the acetabulum is rather weakly excavated. The acetabular border is quite worn. The ventral acetabular expansion is moder- ately wide and its anterior border makes an angle of much greater than 90 degrees with the shaft. The tip of the ventral acetabular expansion is broken. There is no dorsal ridge or crest on the com- pressed ilial shaft. A shallow groove that lacks a distinct ventral border lies on the lateral face of the ilial shaft just anterior to the acetabulum. Measurements: greatest height of ilial shaft 1.3 mm, height of acetabular fossa 1.7 mm, length of dorsal protuberance 1.0 mm. Paratype. The paratype is more worn that the holotype, but it appears to represent another individual of the same species. The dorsal protuberance is completely broken off and is represented only by a scar. Moreover, the dorsal prominence is eroded. But based on the scar left by the dorsal protuberance, the anterior border of this structure seems to have been slightly farther forward on the bone than in the holotype. Moreover, the lateral groove is somewhat more distinct. But both these differences seem attri- butable to individual variation. The border of the acetabulum is highly worn and the tips of the dorsal and ventral acetabular ex- pansions are broken in the paratype. Measurements: greatest height of shaft 1.4 mm, height of acetabular fossa 1.6 mm. Referred elements. The tibio-fibulae represent frogs of about the same size as those represented by the ilia and are of the same elongate proportions as in tibio-fibulae in recent hylid frogs. Thus, these bones are tentatively referred to Hyla swanstoni. Remarks. Holman (1967) discussed characters of the ilia of various hylid genera and described Hyla miofloridana from the early Miocene of Florida, a form that shows similarities to recent Hyla cinerea, H. gratiosa, and H. versicolor. The chief difference between H. miofloridana and the recent species is that the dorsal protuberance of the fossil is less produced and distinct from the HotMaAN: Lower Oligocene Amphibians 285 shaft than in the recent forms and that a groove with a strong ventral border on the lateral face of the ilial shaft just anterior to the acetabular fossa is present in the Miocene fossil. A second early Miocene Hyla from the same deposit was described by Auffenberg (1956) and re-studied by Holman (1967). This smaller form, Hyla goini, has a strong dorsal protuberance, lacks the lateral groove, and is rather similar to Hyla squirella, a small tree frog that is common in Florida today. Hyla swanstoni is more similar to H. miofloridana than to H. goini in having a weakly developed dorsal protuberance and a lateral groove present. The fact that the earliest known North American frogs of the family Hylidae are referrable to the genus Hyla is of considerable interest. DIscUSSION AND SUMMARY The modern nature of the amphibian fauna of the early Oli- gocene of the Cypress Hills formation is striking. All of the genera are living at present, and modern subgenera, and in some cases even modern species groups, may have been differentiated by early Oligocene times. Another interesting aspect of the Cypress Hills fauna is the absence of the ubiquitous genera Rana and Bufo. These genera, especially the former, are almost without exception the most abun- dant anuran remains in late Cenozoic fossil faunas, yet neither genus is represented among hundreds of individual bones and fragments from the Cypress Hills. Ambystoma tiheni represents the subgenus Ambystoma and has vertebral proportions similar to the opacum species group of Tihen (1958). But whether these vertebral proportions indicate an actual relationship to the opacum group may be conjectural. Today, the opacum group is restricted to the United States east of the great plains. Another species group, the maculatum group, is quite similar to the opacum group in most respects, and although it differs in vertebral proportions, it may be related to the fossil. The maculatum group has a disjunct distribution today. One part of the group occurs along the Pacific coast from southern Alaska to north- ern California and east into Montana; another part occurs in the east from southern Labrador to southeastern Manitoba and south throughout most of the United States east of the great 286 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES plains. It would seem that the fossil could be ancestral to either the opacum group or the maculatum group or perhaps to both. The new Rhinophrynus canadensis material indicates that the fossil form is a more distinct species than was formerly thought, but not as much smaller than the recent form as was previously believed. The facts that the humeri, radio-ulnae, femora, and tibulae are more elongate, the humeri less bowed, and all of these bones less robust, may indicate that the fossil was less adapted for burrowing than the recent species. But I see no evidence to indi- cate that R. canadensis was not directly ancestral to R. dorsalis. Today, R. dorsalis occurs from Zapata County, in extreme southern Texas, south through Mexico to Costa Rica. It apparently occurs on both coasts in Mexico. I suspect that this range reflects a with- drawal of the species from the north during the deterioration of the climate during the middle and late Tertiary. The fact that the Scaphiopus material can be relegated to sub- genus with confidence and is similar to the living species, Scaphi- opus holbrooki is of much interest. Perhaps the subgenera Scaphi- opus and Spea may have differentiated in the Eocene or earlier rather than the Oligocene dichotomy that was previously suggested by Kluge (1966). Today, S. holbrooki ranges mainly east of the 100th Meridian in the United States with only one extralimital population (S. h. hurteri) occurring in the panhandle areas of Texas and Oklahoma. But the subgenus Spea (S. bombifrons) is the only pelobatid that occurs in Saskatchewan today. This situa- tion parallels the one in the fossil Ambystoma where the recent species group most similar to the fossils occurs in eastern United States. The presence of Hyla from the early Oligocene of Saskatchewan indicates the possibility of an Eocene or earlier origin of modern hylid genera. Hyla swanstoni is similar to several species of Hyla living in eastern United States in the middle Cenozoic and in re- cent times. This Oligocene fossil may be close to the ancestry of Hyla miofioridana of the early Miocene of Florida. Paleoecological inferences in many cases must be based on ecological patterns of living species that are closely related or identical to fossil ones. Fortunately, the early Oligocene fossils are taxonomically similar to forms living today, and such inferences can be made. The most abundant anurans are Rhinophrynus cana- Hotman: Lower Oligocene Amphibians 287 densis and Scaphiopus sp. Both of these animals suggest a climate where rainfall was sporadic and seasonal. Recent Rhinophrynus dorsalis is characterized by being especially dependent upon tor- rential, even violent rainstorms to initiate breeding. Many field workers, including myself, have been impressed with the fact that the only time one can expect to collect R. dorsalis is immediately after particularly heavy seasonal rains. Several workers have also noticed that Scaphiopus holbrooki, a form closely related to the fossil, does not have a particular breeding cycle, but rather breeds after heavy rains. Moreover, they breed in temporary water and their tadpoles metamorphose very quickly. Bragg (1945) has cited this as characteristic of xeric breeding patterns in amphi- bians. Thus, I think it is possible to postulate that during the Oligocene the Cypress Hills area was characterized by a fairly xeric climate with seasonal rainfall. The presence of crocodilians, boid snakes, Rhinophrynus, and Scaphiopus in the same fauna suggests a climate not unlike that of the coastal lowlands of Mexico today. LITERATURE CITED AUFFENBERG, W. 1956. Remarks on some Miocene anurans from Florida, with a description of a new species of Hyla. Breviora, no. 52, pp. 1-11. Bracc, A. N. 1945. The spadefoot toads of Oklahoma with a summary of our knowledge of the group, II. American Nat., vol. 79, pp. 52-72. Corr, E. D. 1891. On vertebrata from the Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks of the Northwest Territory, I. The species from the Oligocene or Lower Miocene beds of the Cypress Hills. Geol. Surv. Canada, Contrib. Canadians Paleontols. vol; 3, pt. 1) pp. 1-25. CHANTELL, CHARLES J. 1964. Some Mio-Pliocene hylids from the Valentine formation of Nebraska. American Midl. Nat., vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 211- LOS. Estes, Ricuarp. 1964. Fossil vertebrates from the late Cretaceous Lance formation eastern Wyoming. Univ. California Publs. Geol. Sci., vol. 49, pp. 1-180, 5 pls. EisTES, RICHARD, AND J. A. TIHEN. 1964. Lower vertebrates from the Valen- tine formation of Nebraska. American Mid]. Nat. vol. 72, no. 2, pp. 453-472. GEHLBACH, FREDERICK R. 1965. Amphibians and reptiles from the Pliocene and Pleistocene of North America: A chronological summary and se- lected Bibliography. Texas Jour. Sci., vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 56-70. 288 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES HotMan, J. A. 1961. A new hylid genus from the lower Miocene of Florida. Copeia, 1961, nov 3, pp.) 354-355. ———. 1963. A new rhinophrynid frog from the early Oligocene of Canada. Copeia, 1963, no. 4, pp. 706-708. 1965. A late Pleistocene herpetofauna from Missouri. Trans. Illinois Acad. Sci. vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 190-194. 1966. A small Miocene herpetofauna from Texas. Quart. Jour. Flor- ida Acad: Sci: val. 295 no: 4, pp. 267-275. . 1967. Additional Miocene anurans from Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. vol..30, no. 2, pp. 121-140. Hecut, M. Kk. 1959. Amphibians.and reptiles, in Paul O. McGrew, The geology and paleontology of the Elk Mountain and Tabernacle Butte area, Wyoming. Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 117, art. 3, pp. AGS if hes 7 plsealon taloles: Kiuce, ARNOLD G. 1966. A new pelobatine frog from the lower Miocene of South Dakota with a discussion of the evolution of the Scaphiopus-Spea complex. Los Angeles County Mus. Contr. Sci. no. 113, pp. 1-26. LamBE, L. M. 1908. The vertebrata of the Oligocene of the Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan. Geol. Surv. Canada Contrib. Canadian Paleontol., vol. By JOS 44 70. Iles. McConneEL, R. G. 1885. Report on the Cypress Hills, Wood Mountain and Adjacent Country. Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. Rept., vol. 1, pt. c, 85 1b Ol, 1b cinayo) Nevo, ABIATHA R. 1956. Fossil frogs from a lower Cretaceous bed in southern Israel (Central Negev). Nature, vol. 178, pp. 1191-1192. Nosie, G. K. 1924. A new spadefoot toad from the Oligocene of Mongolia with a summary of the evolution of the Pelobatidae. American Mus. Nov., no. 132, pp. 1-15. Preaspopy, FRANK E. 1954. Trackways of an ambystomatid salamander from the Paleocene of Montana. Jour. Paleontol., vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 79-83. 1959. Trackways of living and fossil salamanders. Univ. California Publs. Zool., vol. 63, pp. 1-72. PIVETEAU, J. 1927. Etudes sur quelques amphibiens et reptiles fossiles. Ann. Paleontol., no. 16, pp. 57-97. RussELL, Loris S. 1934. Revision of the lower Oligocene vertebrate fauna of the Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan. Roy. Canadian Inst. Trans., vol. 20, pt. 1, pp. 49-67. 1936. New and interesting mammalian fossils from western Canada. Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3rd ser., vol. 30, sec. 4, pp. 75-80. HotmMan: Lower Oligocene Amphibians 289 1938. The skull of Hemipsalodon grandis, a giant Oligocene creodont Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3rd ser., vol. 32, sec. 4, pp. 61-66. ——.. 1940. Titanotheres from the lower Oligocene Cypress Hills formation of Saskatchewan. Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3rd ser., vol. 34, sec. 4, pp. 89-100. 1948. Geology of the southern part of the Cypress Hills, southwestern Saskatchewan. Sask. Dept. Min. Rep. no. 8, pp. i-60. SCHAEFFER, B. 1949. Anurans from the early Tertiary of Patagonia. Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 41-68. Tren, J. A. 1958. Comments on the osteology and phylogeny of ambysto- matid salamanders. Bull. Florida State Mus. Biol. Sci. Ser., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1-50. THEN, J. A., AND C. J. CHANTELL. 1963. Urodele remains from the Valen- tine formation of Nebraska. Copeia, 1953, no. 3, pp. 505-510. WaLkeR, CHartes F. 1938.. The structure and systematic relationships of the genus Rhinophrynus. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, nooo. pps 1-11. WEIGEL, Ropert D. 1963. Oligocene birds from Saskatchewan. Quart. Jour. RloridasAcad. Sci., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 257-262. ZWEIFEL, RicHARD G. 1956. Two pelobatid frogs from the Tertiary of North America and their relationships to fossil and recent forms. American Mus. Nov. no. 1762, pp. 1-45. Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48823. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 31(4) 1968 (1969) Reptiles and Birds of the Cay Sal Bank, Bahama Islands DoNnALD W. BUDEN AND ALBERT SCHWARTZ PROBABLY the least known faunistically of the Bahama Islands, and even of the entire Antillean region itself, is the Cay Sal Bank, whose scattered islands lie on the periphery of the 85 kilometer- wide bank, about 160 kilometers south-southeast of Florida and 85 kilometers north of Las Villas Province, Cuba. The edge of Great Bahama Bank lies about 100 kilometers east of the Cay Sal Bank, but the nearest adjacent Bahama island on the Great Bank is An- dros, some 180 kilometers to the east (Fig. 1). Although politically and geologically (as a portion of the Cuban foreland) part of the Bahama Islands, the Cay Sal Bank is far removed from the main mass of the Bahamian archipelago and in actuality lies much closer gf 2 a“ 7 en ie a 2 Ca k 24° Sal Bank", ~ os "p22, re Cub, BUDEN AND SCHWARTZ: Cay Sal Vertebrates 291 to the northern Cuban coast than it does to the balance of the Ba- hamas. The intermediate position of the Cay Sal Bank, between Cuba, continental Florida, and the Bahama Islands, makes it a po- tentially most interesting area as far as its fauna is concerned. Few collectors have visited the Cay Sal Bank; this is doubtless due to its remote position and the fact that the islands are all rela- tively small and widely scattered along the edges of the bank itself. The only herpetological collections made in this region are those of Paul Bartsch, who, as an adjunct to his malacological material, se- cured a very few specimens of two species of lizards and one snake on a visit to four cays (Elbow Cay, Cay Sal, Cotton Cay of the An- guilla Cays, Double Headed Shot Cay) in 1930. The Bartsch col- lection was reported upon by Cochran (1934). Bird collections were made earlier by Cyrus S. Winch in 1891 and J. S. Solomon in 1901. These collections were reported upon by Cory (1891) and Bonhote (1903). The position of the Cay Sal Bank between the Antilles and the continent makes it a most interesting site for ob- servation of migrants; the previously reported resident birds have been very few, and indeed the status of some previously reported residents has apparently changed since those reports were written. In an effort to secure additional herpetological material from the Cay Sal Bank, Richard Thomas made two visits to the area. On one occasion he spent a day (16 March 1967) ashore on Elbow Cay at the northwestern corner of the Cay Sal arc, and on the other he collected for a small portion of a day (14 June 1967) on the An- guilla Cays at the southeastern extreme of the arc; his activities at the latter locality were curtailed by extremely bad weather. De- spite his brief stays on these islands, Thomas was able to add two species of reptiles to the Cay Sal Bank fauna and to augment pre- vious collections of another species. The senior author spent a week on Cay Sal itself but found it extremely poor herpetologically, with but two species of lizards present. However, the time of his visit (18-24 April 1968) was a very propitious one for bird observation, and he was able to increase considerably the number of both mi- grants and residents recorded for the Cay Sal Bank. The present paper summarizes our knowledge of the herpeto- and avifaunas of the Cay Sal Bank, based primarily upon collections made by the senior author and Richard Thomas. Cay Sal, approximately 3 kilometers long and 2 kilometers wide, 292, QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES represents one of the largest islands on the Cay Sal Bank. It is situated at the extreme southwestern portion of the bank about 65 kilometers off the northwest coast of Cuba across Nicholas Chan- Vel, Though small in size, Cay Sal has several distinctive habitats. The entire island is circumscribed by a smooth white sandy beach, the upper zone of which supports a heavy growth of strand vegeta- tion as well as several kinds of shrubs and bushes. At the southern end of the island this zone is characterized by a rather extensive growth of sea-oats (Uniola). Shrubs and bushes become increas- ingly more numerous toward the interior, eventually grading into palm scrub. | Palm trees are for the most part scattered throughout the in- terior and do not form any pure stands. They are 5 to 7 meters in height and their trunks, which are one to several decimeters in di- ameter, form favored resting sites for anoline lizards. Dispersed among the palm trees are a diminutive species of palm, one to two meters in height, and several species of shrubs, the latter at times becoming so dense as to form a nearly impenetrable mass of vege- tation. Much of the southern portion of the island is occupied by a shallow mangrove-fringed lagoon, connected to the sea via a rela- tively short and narrow channel which forms a break on the west shore. The channel is easily traversed on foot at low tide, and the periodically exposed sand bars at the mouth of the lagoon play host to a variety of shore birds. The north end of Cay Sal is bisected by an airstrip which ex- tends from the beach area to the northern fringe of the lagoon. Southwest of the airstrip and adjacent to the west shore are the living quarters for the island’s several inhabitants. Much of this area is now barren as a result of the clearing of the natural vegeta- tion; grasses and small herbaceous plants predominate. Coconut trees have been planted adjacent to the buildings. Cay Sal is generally of low relief with the highest elevations along the east shore where the land rises abruptly from the beach (13-17 meters), thence grades slowly downward toward the south and west. A lesser ridge occurs along the northwest shore. Along the lower interior slope of the latter there is a dense entanglement of vines and deciduous trees. BUDEN AND ScHwaRTz: Cay Sal Vertebrates 293 The substrate is predominantly fine loose sand, with mud in as- sociation with the mangrove community. Several basin-like areas were found on the island. These were extremely parched during the senior author's visit, but such areas may form transient pools of fresh water following periods of heavy rain. Thomas (pers. comm.) described Elbow Cay, in the northwest portion of the bank, as being “almost solid limestone with sandy soil for the most part in rather circumscribed solution holes. Vege- tation is low and sparse, and from a short distance offshore the is- land looks like bare rock. There is a dense but circumscribed patch of Opuntia, a couple of meagre Cocos nucifera and a couple of equally meagre Casuarinas. Adjacent islets are smaller, narrower, but of similar appearance.” An unmanned (and in all probability non-functional ) lighthouse is also on the island. This is assumed to be the “Cay Sal Light” referred to by Bonhote (1903). Elbow Cay is steep-sided and fairly high (10 to 13 meters). That portion of the Anguilla Cays (southeast section of the bank) visited by Thomas “was lower [than Elbow Cay], less pro- nouncedly rocky (i.e., with greater exposure of sand in places), and with more diverse low scrubby vegetation, including ...a thatch palm, Coccoloba, and various other woody shrubs.” We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Richard Thomas in the preparation of the present paper and to recognize as well the cooperation extended him by Frederick M. Berry and the staff of the Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratories of the United States Bureau of Fisheries in allowing him to travel aboard the R/V Un- daunted on two occasions. The senior author visited Cay Sal through the efforts of Stephen M. Hurst and the cooperation of C. W. Moody of Miami, Florida, who presently owns Cay Sal. With- out the very great assistance of the resident commissioner, Harcourt Thomas, and the few residents on Cay Sal, the senior author’s stay there would have been far less pleasant and profitable than it was. All material reported upon is in the collection of the authors; we wish to thank Lewis D. Ober for the opportunity to study compara- tive material in his collection, William B. Robertson for assistance with bird literature in reference to the Cay Sal Bank, and James Bond for information on several species reported from these islands. 294 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES REPTILES Sphaerodactylus decoratus flavicaudus Barbour At the time of their revision of the S. decoratus complex in the Antilles, Thomas and Schwartz (1966) had no specimens of this species from the Cay Sal Bank. Thomas collected a series of 25 specimens on Elbow Cay where these geckos were extremely abun- dant under rocks. The series consists of five unpatterned males and 20 females and female-patterned subadults and juveniles. The dark body bands are either 3 or 4, with the latter number the more common. The males had yellow heads and tails and lacked spot- ting. We have no hesitancy in assigning these lizards to S. d. flavi- caudus since they agree very well with the redefinition of that form as given by Thomas and Schwartz (1966, pp. 7-8). S. d. flavicaudus is now known to occur on the Cay Sal Bank, Andros, and South Bimini (but the species is absent from North Bimini). The association of the Cay Sal Bank and Bimini (as in the case of Tropidophis canus; see beyond) suggests that Bimini may have been secondarily invaded by S. decoratus by Gulf Stream transport from the Cay Sal Bank. The occurrence of the same sub- species on Andros, however, may indicate that the Bimini popula- tion has been derived from that island rather than from Cay Sal; certainly the proximity of Andros to Bimini in contrast to the dis- tance between Cay Sal and Bimini would suggest that Andros has been the site of origin for the Bimini lizards. It is also possible, of course, that Cay Sal decoratus colonized Andros and thence reached Bimini from the latter island. This explanation has more to recommend it, for there seems to be little opportunity for An- dros-to-Cay Sal natural transport. Considering the absence of S. decoratus on the Anguilla Cays and, most especially, on Cay Sal it- self, another possibility is that the species has reached Elbow Cay through accidental human introduction. Thomas (1968) has re- cently reported the occurrence of this gecko on Elbow Cay. Anolis carolinensis fairchildi Barbour and Shreve Cochran (1934, p. 15) first reported “Anolis brunneus” from Cay Sal and Cotton Cay on the Cay Sal Bank; the five specimens BuDEN AND ScHwWARTZ: Cay Sal Vertebrates 295 recorded were taken by Bartsch. Later, Barbour and Shreve (1935, p. 357), using these same specimens, named Anolis fairchildi from Cay Sal; these authors regarded fairchildi as related to A. porcatus Gray from Cuba and A. smaragdinus Barbour and Shreve from the Great Bahama Bank. Oliver (1948, p. 7 et seq.), in his description of A. carolinensis lerneri from the Bimini Islands, considered that fairchildi, smaragdinus, and porcatus (as well as brunneus) should all be considered subspecies of continental A. carolinensis Voigt. Ruibal and Williams (1961) showed that the Cuban “A. porcatus” was in actuality a composite of two species, one of which is A. alli- soni Barbour; the other species they considered as a distinctive form (as A. porcatus) although they stated that their use of a binomial was a matter of convenience since obviously Cuban A. porcatus showed variation comparable to that of already named Bahamian subspecies. We agree completely with their comments but feel that until such variation on Cuba is studied in detail, it is appropri- ate, in order to demonstrate its affinities with the balance of the carolinensis group on North America and the Bahamas, to consider porcatus (sensu lato, and including all Cuban populations presently assigned to that taxon) a subspecies of A. carolinensis. A. c. fairchildi has been known from only the original five speci- mens. The senior author collected a series of 30 (all male) fair- childi on Cay Sal, but it was not encountered by Thomas on Elbow Cay nor the Anguilla Cays; the latter is remarkable since the lizard is known from Cotton Cay, one of the Anguilla Cays. In an effort to determine in what ways fairchildi differs from adjacent related members of the carolinensis group, we have taken scale counts on 20 topotypical A. c. smaragdinus from Long Island, 24 A. c. caro- linensis from southern Florida and the Florida Keys, and six A. c. porcatus from west central Cuba. Barbour and Shreve diagnosed fairchildi as being “Allied to Anolis porcatus and Anolis smaragdinus from which two species it differs in possessing larger dorsal and temporal scales; it differs from both also in coloration.” We have taken counts of scales across the snout at the level of the first (counted from the anterior margin of the eye) canthal scales, number of rows of scales be- tween the supraorbital semicircles, number of scales between the supraorbital semicircles and the interparietal (right and left sides of each lizard written as a fraction, as 1/1, 2/2, etc.), fourth toe la- 296 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mellae on phalanges il and Il, number of postmental scales, num- ber of loreal scales on one side, number of temporal scales between the posterior margin ot the orbit (exclusive of the posterior en- larged members of the circumorbital series), and the anterior mar- gin of the ear opening, and have measured head length from the anterior margin of the ear opening to the snout and head width across the broadest portion of the head at the temporal region. Several of these counts have proven valuable in analysis of sub- specific variation in other Antillean anoles (A. distichus, Schwartz, MS; A. homolechis complex, Schwartz, 1968b; A. angusticeps, Schwartz and Thomas, MS). As far as scutellation is concerned, the subspecies carolinensis, smaragdinus, fairchildi, and porcatus seem remarkably poorly de- fined. Of these four taxa, fairchildi males reach the largest size (76 mm in snout-vent length) with porcatus males only a milli- meter smaller (Ruibal, 1964, p. 486). The largest smaragdinus from Long Island has a snout-vent length of 60 mm; indeed Barbour and Shreve (1935, p. 355) partially diagnosed smaragdinus on its much smaller average size in comparison with porcatus. The larg- est south Florida carolinensis male has a snout-vent length of 56 mm; Duellman and Schwartz (1958, p. 278) reported 58 mm as the largest male trom the Miami area studied by them. Of these four forms, fairchildi and porcatus males are large, and carolinensis and smaragdinus males are considerably smaller. Females seem to show the same general picture, but our recent series includes no fe- male fairchildi. The largest Long Island female smaragdinus has a snout-vent length of 45 mm, the largest porcatus female has a snout- vent length of 65 mm, and the largest carolinensis female (Duell- man and Schwartz, 1958, p. 279) 52 mm. Scales across the snout at the first canthals are modally 5 in Long Island smaragdinus (mean 5.3; range 5-7) and in fairchildi (mean 5.1; range 3-7), but are modally 6 in carolinensis (mean 6.3; range 5-8); our very small series of porcatus has 5, 6, and 7 with equal in- cidence, and a mean of 6.0. Scales between the semicircles are modally | in ali populations, with variants of 0 (semicircles in con- tact) and 2 occurring in each sample. Scales between the semi- circles and the interparietal are modally 2/2 in all populations, with variants of 1/1 and 1/2 in all populations, and 2/3 in caroli- nensis, smaragdinus and porcatus, and 4/4 in one porcatus. Of the BUDEN AND ScHwartz: Cay Sal Vertebrates 297 fairchildi, 15 lizards have 2/2 scales in this position, six have 1/1 and six have 1/2. Fourth toe lamellae in fairchildi vary between 17-23 (mean 19.5); these scales have lower means and extremes in carolinensis (mean 17.5; range 15-19) and smaragdinus (mean 18.9; range 17- 22) and higher in porcatus (mean 22.6; range 22-24). The higher porcatus mean may be an artifact of the small sample studied, but nevertheless we assume that, because of its larger size, porcatus probably has a greater number of fourth toe lamellae than the two smaller forms and is thus comparable in this feature to the large fairchildi. Postmental scales are modally 4 in carolinensis and porcatus and are modally 2 in smaragdinus and fairchildi. Other than 4, carolinensis has 3 postmentals only as a casual variant (three of 24 individuals ) and ali six of our Cuban porcatus have 4 postmentals. On the other hand, of 20 smaragdinus, 14 have 2 postmentals, four have 3 postmentals, and two have 4 postmentals; of 24 fairchildi. 12 have 2 postmentals, three have 3 postmentals, and nine have 4 postmenitals. Of the four forms, carolinensis has the highest mean number of loreals (19.2; range 15-25), with porcatus next in rank (mean 18.8; range 15-23), fairchildi third (mean 14.8; range 12-20), and sma- ragdinus the lowest loreal mean (13.7; range 12-17). The large temporals of fairchildi were used in part to diagnose this form. Counts of temporals between the posterior margin of the orbit and the auricular opening demonstrate quite clearly the actuality of this feature: means for the four populations are 8.0 (7- 9) in fairchildi, 8.7 (8-14) in carolinensis, 9.0 (8-11) in smarag- dinus, and 10.3 (9-11) in porcatus. Ratio of head width to head length (HW/HL) in male fair- childi (snout-vent jengths between 67-76 mm) varies between 52.0 and 65.4, with the highest ratio for the smallest lizard; the fairchildi HW/HL mean is 358.0. Male carolinensis HW/HL varies between 92.4-73.3 (mean 59.0) but the higher ratios are for small lizards with snout-vent lengths of 30 mm ox less. In smaragdinus males. the HW/HL ranges between 49.4-57.8 (mean 54.7) and in two por- catus males between 52.4-57.4 (mean 54.9). To summarize the above data, A. c. fairchildi is equal in size to A. c. porcatus and is distinctly larger than the nominate subspecies 298 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and A. c. smaragdinus. In modally having 5 scales at the level of the first canthals, fairchildi resembles smaragdinus and differs from carolinensis (and probably porcatus). The modal presence of two postmentals differentiates fairchildi from carolinensis and porcatus but not from smaragdinus. A. c. fairchildi has a much lower mean number of loreals than carolinensis and porcatus but is similar to smaragdinus in this character. Of the four subspecies, fairchildi has the largest temporals. It is in color and pattern that fairchildi differs most strikingly from the three adjacent subspecies. There are no differences in basic dewlap color, since all subspecies involved have the dewlap pinkish to pinkish purple; the depth of pigmentation may vary somewhat, but the basic hues are pinks. Barbour and Shreve (1935, pp. 357-358 ) stated that the coloration of fairchildi was “Evi- dently vivid green in life . . . back abundantly spotted with white, each whitish spot covering one whole dorsal scale, on the sides there are dark transverse streaks, upper sides of limbs colored simi- larly to the back, except that the hind limbs are spotted with light brown to form an irregularly reticulate pattern.” This description, including the assumed green color in life, fits the series of males very well. There is some variation in the amount of white dorsal dotting, and there may be white dots on the upper surfaces of the hindlimbs. The tail may also have a series of fine white transverse lines on its upper face. The sides of the trunk are regularly streaked by vertical darker green bars, closely appressed to each other, and the hindlimbs are darkly reticulate. In having dorsal white dotting, fairchildi differs from all of its neighbors, since carolinensis, smaragdinus, and porcatus lack this feature and are basically unpatterned green lizards with pink dew- laps. The supra-axillary spot is barely indicated in fairchildi; most often in this position there is a small darker area surrounded by a more or less complete ring of white dots, the maximum expression of the spot. At the other extreme are males which lack any indica- tion of the spot. A. c. smaragdinus lacks the supra-axillary spot, and it is variously present in porcatus and carolinensis. The origin of A. c. fairchildi is probably from either porcatus or smaragdinus. In size, fairchildi and porcatus are quite similar; but fairchildi resembles smaragdinus in several features of scalation. Possibly the situation is, rather than a serial arrangement of porca- BUDEN AND ScHWaARTz: Cay Sal Vertebrates 299 tus-fairchildi-smaragdinus, a bipartite one, in that both fairchildi and smaragdinus represent two divergent lines of carolinensis- group anoles, both derived originally from Cuban porcatus, each today occupying its own bank. Anolis sagrei ordinatus Cope Anolis sagrei is widespread throughout the Bahama Islands; the species occurs as well on the Florida Keys and elsewhere in Florida (at least the latter areas are presumed to have been colonized by human introduction of the lizards), on Cuba and the Isla de Pinos, Jamaica, Little Cayman (and Cayman Brac, if A. luteosignifer Gar- man is considered a subspecies of A. sagrei), on the Swan Islands, and on the Central American mainland. Several subspecies have been named; the nominate form occurs on Cuba, Isla de Pinos, Ja- maica, and Little Cayman, nelsoni Barbour on the Swan Islands, mayensis Smith and Burger on the Central American mainland, stejnegeri Barbour on the Florida Keys, and ordinatus Cope in the Bahama Islands. In addition, there are two names in use by vari- ous authors for members of this complex in Cuba (in addition to A. s. sagrei), namely bremeri Barbour and greyi Barbour. The accept- ance of several of these forms is open to discussion; no one has criti- cally examined specimens from throughout the range of the species, although Charles M. Fugler is presently engaged in such an under- taking. The situation with A. sagrei in the Bahamas is apparently fairly straightforward. A. s. ordinatus was described from New Provi- dence Island on the Great Bank, and this name has been applied to all sagrei from the Bahamian archipelago. The species is wide- spread in the Bahamas, occurring on both the Little and Great banks, Cat Island, Rum Cay, San Salvador, and Crooked (but not Acklin’s) Island. We have made no detailed comparison of speci- mens from throughout this wide range with one another, but col- lecting A. sagrei in the Bahamas convinces us that there are several noteworthy populations which differ from one another in charac- eristics such as size and dewlap color. As far as Cay Sal Bank lizards are concerned, the problem arises as to whether they show closer affinities with Cuban A. s. sagrei or Bahamian A. s. ordinatus. We have examined 29 A. s. sagrei from Pinar del Rio Province, 300 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Cuba, 28 from the Cay Sal Bank (three from Elbow Cay, seven from Anguilla Cays, 18 from Cay Sal) and 36 from New Provi- dence, the type locality of A. s. ordinatus. Two comments are necessary: 1) we are aware that choice of Pinar del Rio lizards need not reflect the variation of A. s. sagrei throughout Cuba, since the species occurs from one end of the island to the other, and 2) we have deliberately studied only New Providence ordinatus since that island is the type locality of ordinatus, rather than studying A. sagrei from throughout its Bahamian range. It should be under- stood that our comments on A. sagrei are based exclusively on these three samples and that these comments do not necessarily apply to other populations of the species. Of the three samples, the Cay Sal Bank lizards are larger in both sexes: males reach a snout-vent length of 63 mm and females 46 mm (both specimens from Cay Sal). Cuban males reach a length of 51 mm, male ordinatus a length of 55 mm, whereas Cuban fe- males reach a length of 38 mm and ordinatus females a length of 41 mm. All samples modally have 6 scales between the first canthals, and the ranges are 5-9 scales on the Cay Sal Bank and in ordinatus, and 5-7 scales in Cuban sagrei. There is a tendency for New Provi- dence lizards to have a higher mean number of snout scales (6.7) than Cay Sal lizards (6.3) or Cuban sagrei (5.9). Cuban sagrei modally have 1 scale between the supraocular semicircles (26 of 28 lizards), whereas Cay Sal sagrei modally have the semicircles in contact (16 of 26 specimens, with nine lizards having 1 scale be- tween the semicircles and one having 2 scales). New Providence ordinatus also have the semicircles in contact (19 of 34 specimens; 15 lizards have 1 scale between the semicircles ). All samples modally have 2/2 scales between the semicircles and the interparietal; this modality is highest in Cay Sal specimens (67 per cent) and lowest in ordinatus from New Providence (42 per cent). Fourth toe lamellae average 17.6 in Cuban sagrei, 17.8 in ordinatus, and 18.1 in Cay Sal sagrei, with modes of 17 in the first two samples and 19 in the latter. Cay Sal specimens have ihe lowest mean number (2.8) of post- mentals, with ordinatus only slightly higher (3.0) and Cuban sagrei at the upper extreme (3.7). As far as loreal scales are concerned, Cuban sagrei have a mean of 20.9, ordinatus 20.6, and Cay Sal sagrei 22.4. BuDEN AND ScHWARTz: Cay Sal Vertebrates 301 Keeling of the supracarpal scales is especially interesting. In Cuban sagrei, of 28 lizards, 26 were recorded as having the keeling well developed, and the remaining two had these scales weakly keeled. In New Providence ordinatus, 14 specimens lack keeling, 19 have the scales weakly keeled and only 2 have the supracarpals so distinctly keeled as do Cuban sagrei. The Cay Sal sagrei consist of 27 lizards with strong keeling and one with weak keeling. In Cuban sagrei, the dewlap color is variable, with some popu- lations having the dewlap mustard color and others having it orange to reddish, or yellowish, orange. In Bahamian ordinatus, the dewlap color by population varies from a mottled yellow and orange to orange or deep rich chocolate. The Cay Sal lizards had the dewlap orange and thus agree with both Cuban sagrei and or- dinatus. In summary, we consider the Cay Sal lizards to be closest to Anolis s. ordinatus rather than to Cuban A. s. sagrei. We base this conclusion on similarity in overall size, semicircle contact, and num- ber of postmentals. On the other hand, Cay Sal specimens are closer to Pinar del Rio lizards in number of scales between the semi- circles and interparietal, and supracarpal keeling. From both ad- jacent populations, the Cay Sal lizards differ in fourth toe lamellae and number of loreals. It is possible that the Cay Sal Bank popu- lation of A. sagrei is primarily Bahamian in origin, and that there has been invasion by Cuban lizards at various times, thereby caus- ing dilution or modification of some ordinatus characters. We wish to re-emphasize that study of variation throughout the total geo- graphic range of A. sagrei is mandatory before any firm statements can be made about the precise affinities and origin of any isolate of that species. The wide geographic distribution and quite obvi- ous variation of even the most superficial characteristics of A. sagrei indicate that analysis of the variation in the species is very greatly to be desired. Typhlops biminiensis biminiensis Richmond Thomas (MS) has recently reported in detail upon the series of five T. b. biminiensis from Elbow Cay. The specimens are identical with material from the type locality (South Bimini) and the same subspecies is presumed to occur also on Andros. The Elbow Cay 302 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Typhlops were secured in and near the woody stems of the domi- nant shrub (Tournefortia); these stems were inhabited by termites (Neotermes jouteli Banks). As Thomas pointed out, the Elbow Cay series is the largest series of T. biminiensis to have been taken at one time; whether the species is common on Elbow Cay or whether the bleak situation on that island makes the animals easier to collect is unknown. It is remarkable that T. biminiensis does not occur also at least on Cay Sal, a much larger and more ecologically diversified island than Elbow Cay. We presume this peculiar dis- tribution is due to the vagaries of overseas transport after the Cay Sal Bank had been separated into its various islets. The species T. biminiensis occurs on Cuba, Great Inagua, and the western Ba- hamas (Cay Sal Bank, South Bimini, Andros), as well as on Cay- man Brac in the Cayman Islands. It is replaced by a separate but related species (T. caymanensis Sackett ) on Grand Cayman. Tropidophis canus curtus Garman Cochran (1934, p. 46) first reported the occurrence of Tropido- phis (as T. pardalis pardalis) from Double Headed Shot Cay of the Cay Sal group; the Bartsch collection included a single juvenile snake from this locality. Schwartz and Marsh (1960, p. 64) ex- amined this snake and noted (as had Bailey, 1937, p. 50) that it was a typically patterned Bahamian snake rather than being like the Cuban T. pardalis. Since Schwartz and Marsh separated the Cuban snakes (T. pardalis) from their Bahamian relatives (T. canus ), the latter name applies to this Cay Sal boid. Two additional adult specimens were collected by Thomas on Elbow Cay. It is of interest that this snake occurs on that small islet but is absent (or at least uncollected) by the senior author on much larger Cay Sal itself. The two new snakes allow us to make some additional comments on the subspecific status of the Cay Sal snakes, but the situation is still by no means clear. Four subspecies of T. cantws occur in the Bahamas, to which ar- chipelago this species is restricted. Of these, T. c. canus Cope is known from Great Inagua, T. c. androsi Stull from Andros, T. c. barbouri Bailey from Long Island, the Exuma Cays, Eleuthera Is- land and Cat Island, and T. c. curtus Garman from New Provi- dence. Schwartz and Marsh (1960, pp. 62-64) commented at BUDEN AND SCHWARTZ: Cay Sal Vertebrates 303 length upon a series of T. canus from South Bimini which were in- distinguishable from T. c. curtus and to which subspecies they ten- tatively assigned them, despite the interpolation of T. c. androsi on Andros, more or less between the two segments of curtus. These Bimini snakes have a distinct bearing upon the status of the Cay Sal Tropidophis. The Double Headed Shot Cay specimen is a juvenile female (total length 199 mm) with 159 ventrals, 31 subcaudals, 9/9 supra- labials and 11/12 infralabials, 1/1 preoculars and 3/3 postoculars, and smooth dorsal scales. There are 10 rows of blotches around the body, 66/64 paired paramedian blotches on the dorsum and 5 on the tail, and the scale row formula is 22-23-19. Of the Elbow Cay snakes, one is a male and the other a female. The former has a total length of 294 mm (tail incomplete), with 153 ventrals, 13+ subcaudals, 10/10 supralabials and 12/11 infralabials, 1/1 preocu- lars, 2/2 postoculars, and keeled dorsals. There are 10 rows of blotches around the body, 47/47 paired paramedian blotches on the dorsum, and the scale row formula is 23-25-19. The female is adult (total length 274 mm, tail incomplete) with 156 ventrals, 10+ sub- caudals, 10/10 supralabials and 13/15 infralabials, 1/1 preoculars and 3/3 postoculars, and keeled dorsal scales. There are 10 rows of blotches around the body, 51/46 paired paramedian blotches on the dorsum, and the scale row formula is 23-23-19. All three snakes lack occipital spots (as is characteristic of the species ), and all lack parietal contact (a feature which varies modally by population). Assignment of these three snakes to any of the recognized sub- species is difficult. The subspecies canus can be easily eliminated (ventrals 170-182). The Cay Sal Bank snakes fall below androsi in ventral counts as well (153-159 in Cay Sal snakes, 157-173 in an- drosi), although there is a small amount of overlap. Geographi- cally, it seems unlikely that the Cay Sal snakes are assignable to barbouri, the subspecies on the eastern half of the Great Bahama Bank (ventrals 153-165), but on the basis of ventral counts, the Cay Sal snakes could be assigned to that subspecies. However, in all features the Cay Sal snakes agree best with snakes from Bimini. Ventrals in the Bimini snakes vary between 146 and 164, body blotches are modally in 10 rows, dorsal paramedian blotches range from 40 to 90, usually the parietals are not in contact, the dorsal scales are usually keeled, and the postoculars are usually 3/3. How- 304 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ever, the midbody scale rows are usually 25 in the Bimini boas, whereas two of three Cay Sal snakes have 23 rows at midbody. If we consider that the Bimini boas are genetically identical with New Providence curtus, there is no choice but to consider the Cay Sal snakes also. Such an arrangement is even more confusing zoogeographically, since we now have a single subspecies occur- ring on three relatively far-flung outposts, the Cay Sal Bank, the Bimini Islands on the western margin of the western arm of the Great Bank, and on New Providence on the western margin of the eastern arm of the Great Bank. As noted above, T. c. androsi is interposed between the Bimini and New Providence populations of LacvCurtus: i At least one partial explanation suggests itself. It is possible that the Bimini boas have been established on those islands due to transport from the Cay Sal Bank via the Gulf Stream. IE so, there can hardly have been any genetic community between Cay Sal- Bimini snakes on one hand and New Providence snakes on the other, unless the New Providence population has been introduced on that island through human (or barely possibly natural) means. It would be instructive in this regard to determine which subspe- cies of T. canus occurs on the string of cays between New Provi- dence (curtus) and Eleuthera (barbouri). If these cays harbor barbouri, with little or no dilution by curtus characters, this might reafirm the possibility that New Providence curtus has resulted from introduction of the subspecies on that island. If it can be demonstrated that Cay Sal-Bimini snakes differ in some constant characters from New Providence Tropidophis, and this seems a very likely possibility since genetic continuity is obvi- ously not possible at present, then the Cay Sal-Bimini snakes should be nomenclatorially set off from T. c. curtus. Although we apply the name T. c. curtus to the snakes from Cay Sal, this is surely the easiest way out of an otherwise very puzzling situation. However, there is no other choice at the present, since the Cay Sal material is extremely limited. Brrps Species collected or observed for the first time on Cay Sal are either stated explicitly as being such in the following accounts, or BUDEN AND ScHwWaRTz: Cay Sal Vertebrates 305 are implied as such when no previous records have been cited. We follow Bond's (1956) check-list in nomenclature. Pelecanus occidentalis Linnaeus. Several Brown Pelicans of un- determined subspecies were seen daily on Cay Sal throughout the senior author's visit. Fregata magnificens magnificens Mathews. One to several Frigate Birds were regularly observed on Cay Sal, circling over- head or harassing members of the tern populations. Ardea herodias Linnaeus. At least two Great Blue Herons were seen frequenting the shallows of the Cay Sal lagoon. One pair was observed feeding in shallows at low tide on 20 April. Butorides virescens virescens (Linnaeus). A single specimen taken on 21 April represents the first record of this subspecies in the Bahamas. Bond (1956, p. 12) referred to one specimen col- lected “off the Bahamas” with no further locality data. Green Herons were fairly common in the mangrove zone on Cay Sal. Whether these birds represented either B. v. virescens or the resi- dent Bahamian B. v. bahamensis ( Brewster), or both subspecies, is unknown. Ardeola ibis (Linnaeus). A male in developing breeding plum- age taken on 24 April furnishes the first record of this species for Cay Sal. Approximately 10-15 individuals appeared to inhabit the island, of which several were repeatedly found in the vicinity of the living quarters where they fed upon flies attracted to accumu- lated refuse. Eudocimus albus (Linnaeus). A single White Ibis was ob- served in flight over Cay Sal on 18 April. On 19 April the bird was observed once again as it fed in the shallows on the eastern side of the lagoon. Anas discors Linnaeus. One male Blue-winged Teal was seen on the Cay Sal lagoon on 20 April. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis (Gmelin). One male with testes slightly enlarged was secured on Cay Sal on 21 April. The only other Osprey seen was in the company of the individual collected and was apparently also a representative of the continental subspe- cies and not the Bahamian resident P. h. ridgwayi Maynard. Falco columbarius columbarius Linnaeus. Four Pigeon Hawks were observed on Cay Sal on 22 April, two of which were collected. 306 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Falco sparverius Linnaeus. Richard Thomas (pers. comm.) ob- _ served at least one Sparrow Hawk on Elbow Cay on 16 March 1967, the first record of the species for the island and the bank. Porzana carolina (Linnaeus). Although no rails were observed by the senior author, Riley (1905) listed Cay Sal as a locality for the Sora Rail. Porphyrula martinica (Linnaeus). Bonhote (1903) recorded two Purple Gallinules taken from the Cay Sal Light on 24 April 1901 and 9 February 1902. The latter specimen struck the south side of the lantern at 2330 hours during cloudy and squally weather. Charadrius semipalmatus Bonaparte. Several Semipalmated Plovers were observed on Cay -Sal on 19 April. The species was also recorded from the island by Riley (1905). Squatarola squatarola (Linnaeus). Black-bellied Plovers ap- peared fairly common along the lower Cay Sal beach. One speci- men was taken on 21 April and six individuals were observed feed- ing together on 22 April. Arenaria interpres morinella (Linnaeus). One Ruddy Turn- stone was collected by the senior author on Cay Sal on 22 April. This species was also procured by Winch on 14-19 May 1891 (Cory, 1891). Gallinago gallinago delicata (Ord). On 22 April a Common Snipe was flushed from the south shore of the Cay Sal lagoon. Actitis macularia (Linnaeus). Spotted Sandpipers were fre- quently seen foraging among rocks and clumps of wave-washed algae along the lower beach. One individual was taken on 22 April. Catoptrophorus semipalmatus (Gmelin). 2 = = 2 s 100 3 3 Siaee x H+ rf « ° c Vv “ 2 ‘s g 3 ao ru) o a No. of Samples Sampling Station VEGETABLES 100 3] x = Oo ra 50 Samples 37 SE Sw c NE NW Sampling Regions Fig. 4. Geographic variation of cesium-137 in Florida milk, beef, and vegetables in 1967. ~l ROESSLER ET AL.: Cesium in the Biosphere ‘wet eastern United States because of its subtropical location”, and leaves only northwestern Florida in the “wet” (high deposition ) category. These generalizations about fallout distribution are supported by the observed levels of °°Sr, another biologically significant fission product with an abundance in fallout comparable to #**Cs. The °°Sr concentration in soil was less at Miami in southern Florida than at Jacksonville in northern Florida (List et al., 1965); the levels in those biological media examined (milk and total diets) were not particularly high (Fig. 3); and the levels in milk (the only reported media examined on a statewide basis) generally decreased from north to south in the State (Florida State Board of Health, 1964- 68; C. E. Roessler et al., 1969a). Similarly, in the unpublished study already mentioned, the °°Sr levels in Florida dairy feeds were not particularly high and also generally decreased from north to south. Although there is a contrast between the distribution of °°Sr and 1°*Cs in the State, there is no basis to suggest an unusual frac- tionation of fission products in the atmosphere resulting in a partic- ularly 1°'Cs-rich fallout being delivered to sections of Florida (Hardy and Chu, 1967). Rather, it is more reasonable to assume that some mechanism exists which results in an unusual concentra- tion of 1**Cs (and possibly other nuclides) in the Florida biosphere. 7. Possible critical factors in this mechanism include soil char- acteristics, climate, cultivation practices, unique vegetation types, and unique rates of vegetation growth. In one investigation, pan- golagrass (Digitaria decumbens) was suggested as the primary source of elevated intake by dairy cattle in the Tampa, Florida, milkshed (Porter et al., 1966). In another study this grass was shown to accumulate '°’Cs to higher levels than several other com- mon Florida pasture grasses (Cromroy et al., 1967). However, it appears that a species effect alone does not account for the elevated levels of 1**Cs in milk from parts of the State where pangolagrass is not grown nor for the elevated levels observed in other vegetation. Langham (1965) and Fredricksson et al. (1966) report that the primary source of '*‘Cs currently in the biosphere is from the at- mosphere by direct foliar deposition on plants and that uptake from the soil is very limited because of fixing of cesium in an unavailable form on clay minerals in the soil, particularly in mineral soils of the temperate zone. However, the persistence of '**Cs levels in Florida 8 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES media during the present period of decreasing deposition, particu- larly the persistence in milk from parts of the State having the high- est levels of this nuclide (C. E. Roessler et al., 1969a), suggests a significant local reservoir of available cesium, the soil. Limited investigations of the availability to plants of the '*‘Cs in Florida soils support the importance of soil cesium. In a pilot study, there was significant uptake from Florida soils by several grasses (Cromroy et al., 1967). In a study of 12 Florida, Alabama, and Ohio soils, Cummings et al. (1969) demonstrated a negative power function relationship be- tween ‘Cs uptake by oats grown two weeks in containers in an environmental chamber and the experimentally determined 1°*Cs fixing capacity of these soils. The '‘Cs fixing capacity of the five Florida soils was found to be considerably less than that of the other soils and the uptake by oats was indeed greater from the Florida soils than from the others. Work in progress by W. E. Bolch, another University of Florida investigator, indicates relatively high penetration of the ™*Cs into Florida soils; for example, uncultivated pasture lands in central Florida contain measureable amounts of this nuclide below a depth of 6 inches. The findings are consistent with the fact that in the parts of Florida showing the highest '*’Cs concentrations in biologi- cal media, soils generally have clay fractions of only one per cent or less. It has also been suggested that significant amounts of cesium will be available during recycling in the more tropical parts of the State because of the rapid turnover of organic matter. SIGNIFICANCE OF EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS Although current levels of **Cs in Florida are not considered as an immediate health hazard, an unusual concentrating mechanism could result in higher than expected radiation exposures as a result of intentional or inadvertent releases to the environment of this, and possibly other, radionuclides. This condition has potential signifi- cance to the siting and operation of nuclear facilities in the State and to the disposal of radioactive waste. By identifying the critical factors in biospheric concentration of 87Cs, describing relationships between environmental compartments in quantitative terms, and relating present human exposure to levels of #*Cs in the various components, a model can be developed for ROESSLER ET AL.: Cesium in the Biosphere 9 predicting the consequences of future releases of this nuclide to the environment. It is possible that the mechanism affecting '*‘Cs ac- cumulation also affects other nuclides, and an extension of these studies to other nuclides potentially has the same significance as for 137Cs, Because of the subtropical location, studies in Florida also con- tribute to the understanding of the behavior of radionuclides in tropical environments, an area in which only a limited amount of work has been done. FURTHER RESEARCH Because of the apparent unusual '**Cs-concentrating mechanism in Florida, additional research is needed to describe the radiation source-environment-man relationship. In addition to the continua- tion of measurements of '**Cs body burdens in humans and meas- urements of the concentrations of this nuclide in various food com- modities, other related studies have been initiated at the University of Florida. The roles of deposition and soil characteristics are being examined in an attempt to establish the factors responsible for the unusual '**Cs levels. Other work currently in progress involves de- termination of the per cent of organic matter in the soils examined for **Cs content. The roles of climate and cultivation practices represent additional areas for investigation. There is also a need for the development of predictive models to estimate future ex- posure to ***Cs in the Florida environment. Since it is possible that the factors resulting in unusual '‘Cs concentrations and human exposure also influence the behavior of other radionuclides, tracer studies should be performed with other important nuclides. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported in part by United States Public Health Service Grants No. 5-T1RH3-07( 67), No. 3-T-RH30-04S1(66), and No. 3T1RH30-04S2(67), and by the 1968 National Institutes of Health General Research Support Grant No. FR-05362-07. LITERATURE CITED Canty, D. G., AND J. K. WHEELER. 1968. The biological half-life of cesium- 137 in children determined by urinary assay. Health Physics, vol. 14, pp. 293-297. 10 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Cromroy, H. L., W. A. GoLtpsmirn, C. R. Puimtuips, AND W. P. BONNER. 1967. Uptake of cesium-137 from contaminated soil by selected grass crops. Radiol. Health Data and Reports, vol. 8, pp. 421-424. Cummincs, S. L., L. BARKERT, A. R. GARRETT, JR., AND J. EK. REGNIER. 1969. 137Cs uptake by oat plants as related to the soil fixing capacity. Health Physics, vol. 17, pp. 145-148. FEDERAL RADIATION CounciL. 1964. Revised fallout estimates for 1964-65 and verification of the 1963 predictions, Report No. 6, Washington, D.C. FLoripA STATE Boarp or HEALTH. 1964-68. Florida Milk Network. Radiol. Health Data and Reports. vol. 5-8. FREDRIKSON, L., R. J. GARNER, AND R. S. RussELu. 1966. Cesium-137, Chapter 15 in Radioactivity and Human Diet. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 317- 352. GusTAFson, P. F., AND J. E. MILLER. 1969. The significance of 137Cs in man and his diet. Health Physics, vol. 16, pp. 167-185. Harpy, E., anp N. Cuu. 1967. The ratio of 137Cs to 9°Sr in global fallout. Health and Safety Laboratory Fallout Program Quarterly Summary Re- port, HASL-182, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, pp. I-6—I-9. LancHAM, W. H. 1965. Biospheric contamination by radioactive fallout. Radioactive Fallout, Soils, Plants, Foods, Man. Elsevier Publ. Co., New York. fe List, R. J., L. Macutra, L. T. ALEXANDER, J. S.. ALLEN, M. W. MEYER, V. T. VaALassis, AND E. P. Harpy, Jr. 1965. Strontium-90 on the Earth’s surface III. Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Tests, Conf-765, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Division of Technical Information, pp. 359- 368. Porter, C. R., E. R. Pumuies, M. W. Carter, AND B. KAHN. 1966. The cause of relatively high cesium-137 in Tampa, Florida, milk. Radio- ecological Concentration Processes, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 95-101. Rogsster, C. E. 1967. Cesium-137 and other gamma radioactivity in the Florida environment. A study of selected media. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida. RogEssueR, C. E., B. G. Dunavant, H. A. BEvis, AND G. S. RoEssLEeR. 1968. Cesium-137 levels in Florida beef, Variations with feeding program. Radiol. Health Data and Reports, vol. 9, pp. 391-395. RorssLer, C. E., E. G. WitiiaMs, AND E. D. NETTLES. 1969a. Cesium-137 and strontium-90 in Florida milk, a five-year study of distributions and levels. Health Physics, vol. 16, pp. 681-689. ROESSLER ET AL.: Cesium in the Biosphere ila Roesster, C. S., B. G. DUNAVANT, AND H. A. Bevis. 1969b. Investigations of unusual cesium ecology in Florida. Cesium-137 levels in feed-lot beef. Health Physics, vol. 16, pp. 691-700. RoEssLeR, G. S., B. G. DUNAVANT, AND C. E. RorssLer. 1969. Cesium-137 body burdens in Florida residents. Health Physics, vol. 16, pp. 673-679. U. S. Pustic Hearty Service. 1959-68. Pasteurized Milk Network. Radiol. Health Data and Reports, vol. 1-9. U. S. Pusric Heautu Service. 1962-1968. Radionuclides in institutional diet samples. Radiol. Health Data and Reports, vols. 3-9. Department of Radiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(1) 1969 A Preliminary Study of Portunid Crabs in Biscayne Bay Joun R. Park Portunwm crabs (Crustacea, Portunidae) are important as pred- ators and scavengers and as sea-food, but their ecology is not well known. The present study treats the populations of different spe- cies in Biscayne Bay, Florida, a tropical estuary, and their relation- ships to the substratum. Many studies have been made on the ecology of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, in temperate estu- aries. Darnell (1959) has summarized these and has provided an excellent bibliography. The physical environmental variables in Biscayne Bay are well known (e.g., Hela et al., 1957; McNulty et al., 1962; and Smith et al., 1950), and much of the fauna and flora has been studied (e.g., Pearson, 1936; O’Gower and Wacasey, 1967; and Voss and Voss, 1955). However, of the fourteen species included in this study only five have been previously recorded from Biscayne Bay. The main area of this study is the central portion of Biscayne Bay (i.e., Rickenbacker Causeway Island, Virginia Key, Key Bis- cayne, and adjacent areas on the mainland). Collections were made on sand, mud, gravel, and grass communities. The grass beds (marine angiosperms) are primarily Thalassia testudinum but Syringodium filiforme, and Diplanthera wrightii are also often pres- ent. Beds of primarily Syringodium or Diplanthera were not sampled, except for sand communities with very light, sparse, growths of Diplanthera. Although no collections were made on rocky bottoms, species from such communities are included in the discussion. This area is south of the twenty degree celsius minimum marine isotherm (Fuglister, 1947), and therefore the fauna and flora are basically tropical. METHODS A collection was made at each of twenty locations over an eight month period, from July 1967 to February 1968 using a hand- pulled, rectangular dredge with a one by one-half meter opening with nylon netting of three-eighths inch stretched mesh. The lo- cations were as follows: (1) S.E. Bear Cut (SS); (2) Cape Florida Marina (T/S); (3) Matheson Hammock (HS); (4) S.W. Bear Cut Park: Portunid Crabs in Biscayne Bay 13 (HS); (5) S.W. Virginia Key (D&S); (6) S. Rickenbacker Cause- way Island (D&S); (7) N. Virginia Key (D&S); (8) S.E. Bear Cut (T/S)/ (9) Matheson Hammock (T/S); (10) N.W. Bear Cut (A&G); (11) S.W. Bear Cut (T&G); (12) N.E. Virginia Key (T/S); (13) N.E. Virginia Key (HS); (14) N.E. Key Biscayne fso)2 7 lo)es:E: Bear Cut (1/S)2 (16) N.W. Virginia Key (HM); Gi jes: Bear Cut (SS); (18) W: Key Biscayne (1T/M); (19) W. Key Biscayne (SM); (20) Matheson Hammock (HS). “Thalassia over sand” (T/S) and “Thalassia over mud” (T/M) refer to grass beds. “Thalassia and gravel” (T&G), “algae and gravel” (A&G), and “Diplanthera and sand” (D&S) refer to areas with very light, broken, growths of marine plants, which are pri- marily sand or gravel communities. “Hard sand” (HS) and “hard mud” (HM) are areas where the substratum is hard-packed. Areas of loose, soft bottom are referred to as “soft sand” (SS) or “soft sandy mud” (SM). Each collection was a sample of approximately 400 square meters. All crabs were preserved in 10 per cent formalin. The carapace width for each crab was measured to the nearest milli- meter. Identifications were made after Rathbun (1930), and Wil- liams (1965 and 1966). Substratum and water samples were col- lected for each location. The water temperature and salinity were recorded. The substratum samples were individually wet sifted through a series of geological sieves of sizes 841, 595, 177, 125, and 74 microns, and particles smaller than 74 microns were collected on no. | filter paper. These samples were also analyzed for the or- ganic content using hydrogen peroxide to oxidize the organics. List OF SPECIES Arenaeus cribrarius. Although this species was not found in this study, it has been recorded in Biscayne Bay by Rathbun (1930). Dr. Martin Rossler (personal communication) has stated that they are at least seasonally common in Norris Cut (between Virginia Key and Fisher’s Island). Callinectes danae. A total of seven specimens were caught at locations 1, 4, 8, 14, and 15. Crabs on sand averaged 40 mm (carapace width) and those on grass averaged 89 mm with the net average 61 mm. This species was only found on, or adjacent to, the ocean side of the islands. From the occurrence records in 14 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Rathbun (1930), it appears that this species is usually found on wave beaten sandy shores and has not been recorded from the Florida Keys. Their occurrence may be related to the loose, wave beaten, quartz sand which is not found within Biscayne Bay or in the Florida Keys where the quartz sand is replaced by calcium sand, gravel, and rocks. This may also be the reason for the similar distribution of Arenaeus cribrarius. Callinectes exasperatus. Only two specimens, both females, (54 and 117 mm) were found in this study, both at location 2. This species has never been recorded north of the Florida Keys (Rathbun, 1930). Callinectes ornatus. A total of 415 crabs of this species were caught and represented an average population density of 9.7/100 m2. The average carapace width was 37 mm. This is the most abun- dant portunid in Biscayne Bay, found at all locations except loca- tion 16 where no crabs were found. The average population densi- ties (crabs/100 m?) were; on soft sand, 22.5; on Thalassia, 6.3; on hard sand, 4.7; and on Diplanthera and sand, 2.7. The average sizes were; on Thalassia, 47 mm; on Diplanthera and sand, 38 mm; on soft sand, 36 mm; and on hard sand, 33 mm. For population densities greater than 7/100 m?, the population densities were di- rectly proportional to the average carapace widths (a correlation co-efficient of r=0.9 was found). Approximately eleven per cent of the total population was visibly infected by the sacculinid para- site Loxothylacus texanus. Callinectes sapidus. A total of 18 crabs of this species were caught at locations 5 and 9, with single specimens from locations l and 3. The average carapace width was 81 mm and the average population density 2/100 m*. This species is most abundant in the canals and areas of very low salinity which were not included in this study. The subspecies Callinectes sapidus acutidens repre- sents part of the population in Biscayne Bay. Approximately 22 per cent of the population in Biscayne Bay was visibly infected by the sacculinid parasite Loxothylacus texanus. Breeding appears to occur in early January (report of crab fishermen) and Sep- tember (egg bearing females caught) in Biscayne Bay. In Alli- gator Harbor, west Florida, C. sapidus breeds in late February, early March, late April, and early September (Wass, 1955). Calli- nectes sapidus breeds in March, April, and September in Aransas Park: Portunid Crabs in Biscayne Bay 15 ay, Texas (Daughtery, 1952). Considering the marine isotherms in Fuglister (1947), these findings agree well with others (Darnell, 1959) which have found breeding to be dependent upon tempera- ture in temperate areas. Cronius ruber. Although this species was not found in this study, specimens from Biscayne Bay are in the museum of the In- stitute of Marine Sciences. Most of the specimens listed by Rath- bun (1930) ‘are from rocky or coral bottoms. This may explain why Cronius ruber was not found in this study. Cronius tumidulus. A total of 46 crabs of this species were caught at locations 1, 4, 8, 14, and 15. These represented an average population density of 2.5/100 m*. The average carapace width was 24 mm. In Rathbun (1930) Cronius tumidulus was only listed from “seagrass”, in this study it was only found in Thalassia beds. Except for location 15, the following relationships appear to hold: The population densities appeared to be inversely proportional to the average carapace widths. Also the average sizes appeared to be directly proportional organic content of the substratum. On 30 December 1967 (location 14) and 6 January 1968 (location 15) females bearing bright red eggs were caught. Location 15 showed a population density twice that usually ob- served for this species, and most of the crabs caught were egg- bearing females. This suggests a breeding migration. Luppela forceps. Only a single specimen, an immature female of 24 mm was caught (location 1). Since this is a common off- shore species, the single specimen is probably a stray. Ovalipes quadalupensis. Although this species was not caught during this study, one specimen was reported by Mr. E. T. LaRow (personal communication) from Bache Shoal, off Sands Key, adja- cent to Biscayne Bay, in February 1968. This species has not been previously recorded so far south (Rathbun, 1930; Williams, 1965). Portunus depressifrons. A total of 246 crabs of this species was emer locations 1 2, 67-7, 8, 10, 116 12, 145 lo; 17, 19, and 20. The average population density was 6.7/100 m? and the average size 18 mm. This is the second most abundant portunid in Bis- cayne Bay, found in all areas except those of hard packed bottom or areas in which C. sapidus was found. Those on sand averaged 16 mm and those on Thalassia 23 mm. Even though this is a very common species, it has not been previously recorded in Biscayne 16 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Bay. The wide range of habitats in which this species was found agrees well with the wide range of habitats listed by Rathbun (1930). Portunus gibbesii. Twelve specimens were caught at location 10 and single specimens were taken at locations 11 and 14. The average population density was 4.9/100 m? and the average cara- pace width 27 mm. Location 10, the only area with a large popu- lation, was unique in that the substratum particles were very large; particles greater than 841 microns 27 per cent (versus an average for all other locations of 6 per cent); greater than 595 microns 53 per cent (average 9 per cent); greater than 177 mi- crons 100 per cent (average 64 per cent); smaller than 125 mi- crons 0 per cent (average 12 per cent); smaller than 74 microns 0 per cent (average 5 per cent). The organic content of the sub- stratum at location 10 could not be detected (i.e. less than 0.2 per cent, the average for the other locations was 1.8 per cent). This type of substratum is characteristic of the cuts and channels of this area. This species has not been previously recorded from Bis- cayne Bay. Portunus ordwayi. Although only one specimen of 42 mm was caught at location 2, a number of specimens from Biscayne Bay are in the museum of the Institute of Marine Sciences, and this species has been recorded in Biscayne Bay by Rathbun (1930) and by O’Gower and Wacasey (1967). Portunus sayi. Although this species was not obtained in the present study, I have previously found a number of specimens in floating Sargassum and a few in grass beds. This species is a member of the floating Sargassum community and is washed ashore with the algae. Apparently it cannot survive for long without Sar- gassum. One of the specimens taken was carrying a sacculinid parasite. Portunus sebae. Although this species was not found during this study, a number of specimens from Biscayne Bay are in the museum of the Institute of Marine Sciences. Rathbun (1930) has recorded this species from the Florida Keys, mostly from rocky bottom. I have also collected a number of specimens from hard coral bottom at Key Largo. Apparently this species prefers rocky bottom. This would explain why none were caught in the present study. Park: Portunid Crabs in Biscayne Bay Wi Portunus spinimanus. mi Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 32 June, 1969 No. 2 CONTENTS Some English comments on Woodrow Wilson as a speaker George C. Osborn 81 Steeply dipping strata, Marion County, Florida James R. Underwood, Jr. 99 Seasonal changes in Foraminifera at Seahorse Key Dale Ingmanson and Arnold Ross 108 Photo-related aging in Spirodela oligorrhiza (Lemnaceae ) Joan P. Ostrow and Marinus J. Dijkman 119 Littoral Crustacea from southwest Florida Wesley L. Rouse 127 A small Pleistocene herpetofauna from Tamaulipas J. Alan Holman 153 Two fossil owls from the Aquitanian of France Pierce Brodkorb 159 ATM ; AQT Hs Oi 4 AN Vi c,% | sah ‘ { (42 5 U0 19/0 Mailed February 27, 1970 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing significant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets of 8% by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees. Marcus should be 1% inches all around. TitTLes should not exceed 55 characters, including spaces. 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Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. PHotocrapHs should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of photographs. Proor must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTS may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA AGADENWs @FeSGIENGES Vol. 32 June, 1969 IN@: 2 Some English Comments on Woodrow Wilson as a Speaker GEORGE C. OsBORN Our English cousins apparently took no notice of Thomas Woodrow Wilson until he won the Democratic presidential nomi- nation at Baltimore in July, 1912. Subsequently, however, there appeared numerous sketches in English newspapers and _ several articles in British periodicals about the Virginia born and New Jersey educated Wilson. Among the achievements worthy of note about this “New Force in American Politics,” as the London Daily Mail (July 4, 1912) dubbed the Democratic nominee, was his ability as a speaker. Indeed, declared this London daily, to read Wilson’s speeches was “to be filled with a new hope for American politics.” Wilson’s speech was “terse and lucid,’ declared the Saturday Review (Anonymous, 1912, pp. 7-8) and added that when on the public platform Wilson was distinctly dignified and “utterly without rostrum trick and manner.” In speech, Wilson realized perhaps that nothing astonished people quite so much as common sense and plain dealing. Running through his public remarks was a disconcerting simplicity and a certain fearlessness that was quite rare in American politics. Wilson was a fine orator, a scholar, a man of disciplined mind and he possessed the fullest academic training, averred the London Daily News and Leader ube. LOL). After speaking of the marvel of Wilson’s nomination, and after emphasizing the progressiveness of his political philosophy, the Manchester Guardian (July 4, 1912) expressed delight that the presidential campaign in the United States would become a real means of popular education on the problems of public affairs. If the spellbinders of the opposition successfully countered Wilson’s arguments and principles as enunciated in his speeches, they would 82 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES certainly have to rise “above the appeals of the demagogue and the language of the prize ring.” Such efforts, concluded the Guardian, would only “render more conspicuous Dr. Woodrow Wil- son’s exceptional claims to the confidence of the American people.” The Liverpool Courier (July 5, 1912) spoke of the superb power of Wilson’s oratory and added that when a great occasion created the opportunity, Wilson spoke with all of the qualities of the classics and of enduring rhetoric. When someone accused the nominee of being a Radical, he countered by saying that the “so- called Radicalism of our time is simply the effort of nature to re- lieve the generous energy of our people. ... The need of the hour is just that Radicalism that will clear away to the realization of the aspirations of a sturdy race.” © While confessing that Woodrow Wilson’s place in history was yet to be made, the Glasgow Herald (November 7, 1912) assured its readers that he possessed several assets, including his restraint as a platform speaker. His public utterances, in their freedom from the personalities and invective which were the stock material of most American orators, were speech models worthy of the widest imitation by his contemporaries. The newspapers of Great Britain apparently were not repre- sented among the reporters who accompanied Wilson during the presidential campaign. But when the election in November re- sulted in a Democratic victory, the English press took a good look at the new President-elect. With a mind that worked like a well- oiled machine, Wilson was methodical and analytical; he varied his speeches to suit his audiences. He could be caustic and some- times was. He could make his hearers laugh and occasionally did. As a rule, neither his language nor his gestures were vigorous. He was not so “much a compelling as an interesting speaker.” He never thundered, nor did he plead; he merely explained. In truth, he was most successful as an exponent of ideas (London Daily Mail, November 7, 1912), and his platform appearances during the campaign “increased feeling in his favor.” His triumph was a triumph of character, a victory for dignity and honorable means. In discussing the Democratic victory the Nation (Anony- mous, !912-1913a, pp. 241-242) declared that Wilson was a man of great intellectual equipment and of genuinely progressive senti- ments. This journal of English public opinion did not believe, OsBporN: Comments on Woodrow Wilson 83 however, that the President-elect’s recent campaign speeches com- mitted him to a constructive policy adequate to meet the needs of the situation. The Daily News and Leader (November 7, 1912), quoted Wil- son's statement upon learning of his election. He declared: “A great cause has triumphed” and added that a genuine work of na- tional service was about to begin. In fact, Wilson stood ready, as he himself said, “to give the country freedom of enterprise and a Government released from all selfish and private influences de- voted to justice and progress.” With Wilson in the White House, the American people would have a disciplined, well-stored in- tellect in the Presidency at the service of a glowing idealism and with a real intimacy with affairs. In a brief message to the Ameri- can people Wilson called upon the Progressive forces of the nation to unite to give the country freedom of enterprise and a govern- ment released from the corrupt influences of trusts and million- aires. “In one of those sublime passages of unconscious humor,” as the Daily News and Leader expressed it, “with which the dis- stressed partisan occasionally lightens the serious face of politics,” Wilson stated that all three candidates had some fiscal views identi- cal with those of the English tariff reformer. During the campaign, Wilson had given evidence of a modest frankness that was a “rare quality in a vote seeker.” Moreover, he absolutely refused to make any personal attack on his rivals. In so doing he showed that the exclusion of personalities did not doom a political speaker to dullness. Quite naturally, Englishmen compared and contrasted Wilson with their own political personalities. One paper declared that as a type of public man, the Democratic candidate resembled Lord Morley or James Bryce or Walter Bagehot (London Daily Mail, July 4, 1912). Indeed, said the London Daily Mail, one might de- scribe his features as a lengthened, Americanized version of Mr. Chamberlain. Wilson’s mouth was a “shade more sensitive and mobile, the eyes a trifle larger and more charged with mirth, the lower jaw appreciable longer; but the general countour and effect are virtually the same, with the advantage perhaps of a more businesslike air of precision on Mr. Chamberlain’s side and a greater charm and reflectiveness on Mr. Wilson’s side.” There were other and more important points that these statesmen had in 84 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES common. For example, both saw with piercing distinctness and both were intolerant of sham, haziness, and the specious forms and aspects of things that pass muster as realities (London Daily Mail, July 7, 1912). To another, Wilson’s gift of epigram frequently brought to mind Winston Churchill, “while his warmth of demo- cratic sympathy and his power of illuminating his subject by homely illustrations sets one thinking of Lloyd George” (London Daily News and Leader, November 7, 1912). And, all the while, one had the conviction that Wilson’s mentality was not only a ready and exact intellect but a full mind from which his public utter- ances sprang. Wilson may have something yet to learn about the currency question or the tariff question, concluded the Daily News and Leader (July 7, 1912), but when he tackled these problems he would approach them with “such a grasp of fundamental prin- ciples of government, such an appreciation of the lessons of history and such maturity and steadiness of judgment as one looks in vain in any other man in the forefront of American public life.” While not ignoring completely the characteristics of Wilson’s speeches discussed by other British papers, the Glasgow Herald (March 4, 1913) was interested in what it called bright copy-book texts that Wilson scattered throughout his orations. Although sev- eral illustrations were noted, one will suffice. Wilson, according to the Herald, stated that “Courage is the quality that marks its possessor for distinction. Ifa man does not possess it, he is marked for extinction and deserves submersion.” Not since the days of Benjamin Disraeli had English politicians been epigrammatic. In Wilson’s time these appeared in British eyes “like misplaced plums in the political porridge.” American audiences, however, were fond of them, and Wilson gave his listeners what they wanted. One widespread difficulty, as emphasized by the Herald, en- countered by the phrase-maker was that he set for himself the onerous task of living up to a high ethical level. Apparently, Wilson had pledged himself to “mount a Simeon Stylites pillar, from which he cannot gracefully dismount while, if he falls, his end must be ignominious. Wilson, concluded this Scot daily, may have a brilliant political future before him, but “he must perform his miracles with the aid of the Democratic party and we have doubts concerning the efficiency of the instrument.” After reading a number of Wilson’s orations, the London Daily SBORN: omments on odrow Wilson 5 OsBoRN: C nent Woodrow Wilso § Telegraph, commented on the rarity of his type in the political life of any country. That quality which contributed to Wilson’s unique- ness was “an abundance of that rare and indefinable thing called character.” Moreover, said the Daily Telegraph (November 7, 1912), the American President-elect represented “clean politics,” a rising cause in the United States. This London daily thought well of Wilson’s promise to give American prosperity a freshness of spirit unknown before and quoted him as saying: “My ambition is to be the frank spokesman of the nation’s thoughtful purposes” (Daily Telegraph, November 1, 1912). If the English press was generous in discussing Woodrow Wil- son, including his public speeches, during the presidential cam- paign of 1912, it was also vocal about his inauguration. Although much was printed about the significance of the occasion in general, the inaugural address was favorably commented upon. It was “a document of rare distinction and elevation of tone,” said the Lon- don Nation, and was “phrased in cultivated English that no Presi- dent in our generation has wielded.” The President began by waving aside the thought of a party triumph; a political party's success meant little save when a nation used it for large and defi- nite purposes. Although no detailed program was set forth in the address, the speaker voiced the urgency of reform and designated particular areas and problems that needed governmental attention. For example, the tariff schedules, which according to Wilson, violated just principles of taxation and played into the hands of private interests, needed revision downward. The Nation ( Anony- mous, 1912-1913b, p. 909) pointed out that Wilson suggested banking and currency reform, at labor legislation, at agricultural reorganization through applied science and extended credit and, finally, at the conservation of natural resources. Oliver Britt, writing in the Daily News and Leader (March 6, 1913), urged a careful study of Wilson’s inaugural address “As a cure for the blind- ness of the Tory Party in England.” Somewhat the same idea was found in the Nation (ibid.) when it stated that the inaugural address was in “deep and striking contrast to the present tenor of European statesmanship. In a leading editorial of considerable length the Liverpool Courier (March 5, 1913) thought well of Wilson’s summing up of the ills of his country by saying that “We were very heedless and 86 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in a hurry to be great.” The Courier believed Wilson had a saving conservatism, which sought to restore and not to destroy. He was a man “working back, in a word, to a definite plan.” With a spe- cific legislative program well in mind, Wilson possessed a strong and patriotic sense of responsibility. The Courier was convinced that Wilson, in a very real and honest fashion, sought to be the leader, not of a party, but of a cause, “This day,” he tells us, “is a ‘day of dedication’ not of triumph.” In that spirit Wilson would proceed along the pathway of reform. No one would wish him ill in his attempt “to cleanse, to reconsider, to restore, to correct the evil without impairing the good. ... Wilson would not miss suc- cess by a great deal,’ concluded the Courier, “if he keeps before him the ideal he now expresses ‘to square every process of our na- tional life with the standards we so proudly set up at the begin- ning. The London Spectator, which after August, 1914, when the European war began, became a bitter critic of Wilson’s neutrality policy, saw in Wilson’s inaugural address a drift toward centraliza- tion. It definitely pointed to “more State [meaning Federal] con- trol, and this from the head of the ancient party of individualism.” If the Spectator was somewhat cool toward the address, it lauded Wilson in the ancient phrase “a Christian, a scholar, and a gentle- man. Incapable of meanness or unfairness, Wilson was pictured as a man of ideas, a philosopher, and a master of apt and graceful phrases. This weekly review believed that Wilson had a “wonder- ful opportunity—dazzling in proportion to its difficulties” to prove himself a man of political courage (Anonymous, 1913, pp. 392-394). The London Daily Mail (March 5, 1913) was one of the few British newspapers that published in full the inaugural address. Wilson, said the Daily Mail, revealed a keen consciousness of the “groans and agony of the poor and the downtrodden.” The presi- dent made a “powerful appeal to ‘all honest men, all patriotic, all forward-looking’ men to help him in humanizing the Government.” This address, continued the London daily, was virtually an indict- ment of the epoch of materialistic success. “It conveyed before his hearers a vision of the “groans and agony of the people working in the mines and in the factories in an age of selfish exploitation of the country’s incredible resources.” The Daily Mail (ibid.) OsBorn: Comments on Woodrow Wilson 87 published a favorable editorial on the inaugural address, choosing a paragraph from the President's speech as its preamble: “In our haste to succeed and be great we have been too often crude, heartless, and wasteful. Our thought has been “Let every man look out for himself, let every generation look out for itself, while we reared giant machinery which made it impossible that any but those who stood at levers of control should have a chance to look out for themselves. The scales of heedlessness have now fallen from our eyes. The nation has been deeply stirred by a solemn passion, stirred by knowledge of wrong, of ideals lost, of a Govern- ment too often debauched and made the instrument of evil. A new age has now come, our duty is to cleanse.” After discussing at some length the ringing appeal for humani- tarianism, the Manchester Guardian (March 5, 1913) declared that the speech was a striking statement of the causes which had brought the Democrats back into power, the campaign promises which Wilson meant to follow and the grounds on which he ap- pealed to his fellow countrymen to help him. Since social reform was a foremost plank in the platform of all the progressive forces in the United States, Wilson should have the support of many progressive Republicans. If this be true, the Guardian concluded, “his inauguration should be the most fruitful of any President in modern times—a President whose motto it is to give the people ‘a chance to look out for themselves.’ ” The London Daily Telegraph (March 5, 1913) informed its British readers that the nature and phraseology of President Wil- sons inaugural address would appear strange to them. “The elo- quent and ornate presentation of humane ideals” had never been a practice among English statesmen; “even in the golden age of our political oratory such a note was seldom sounded and it is never heard today.” Moreover, Wilson’s address, a perfectly sincere pro- nouncement, was the product of a spirit in American politics which had been satirized often enough—“as much by Americans in their cynical moods as it was by [Charles] Dickens in a temper of hos- tility’—but which was undoubtedly an answer to the sentiments and ideals hidden in the American national heart. Wilson, averred the Daily Telegraph (ibid.), plucked at the heartstring of pure idealism and the sound was pleasant in the ears of his countrymen. The paper urged its readers to remember that, in such a speech as the new President made, nobody in America “sits him down as 88 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a dreamer.” The predominant note of the address was the recog- nition of grave social and political evils. Wilson’s call of all Ameri- cans to a day of dedication reflected “the unrest, the anxiety, the disillusionment and the dissatisfaction which affected the whole body politic.” What was the real meaning of the new President's address? Briefly, the Daily Telegraph (ibid.) thought it was this: in the opinion of the Radical or Progressive element which Wilson represented and which was undoubtedly dominant in the Ameri- can mind, the masses of the people did not get what Theodore Roosevelt called a “square deal” in a society ruled by the forces of capitalism. That was Wilson’s prime proposition. Of all the English papers that commented on the inaugural ad- dress, only the London Daily News and Leader (March 5, 1913) contrasted it with the speeches of the two previous Presidents. Wilson’s address was new in substance, had a “brevity, a tautness, a finish unknown to Roosevelt's long, rambling, rococo pamphlets and to Taft’s colourless and unindividual deliverances.” The note of the new message was a candid, searching criticism which broke the convention of usual Presidential optimism. The Daily News and Leader, in discussing the searching criticism expressed in the speech, said that it revealed the awakening of the American people to a new insight into American life. Americans had come to see the other side of the medal which they had struck—‘“the squander- ing of natural resources with shameful prodigality, the winning of industrial achievement without heeding the mutilated lives and broken energies of men, women, and children upon whom the burden was thrust; the diversion of the machinery of government to private and selfish purposes. The American people in their hurry to be great had shut their eyes to many of the elements of true greatness and departed from standards set up by the fathers of the Republic.” But now, as Wilson read the minds of his coun- trymen, the American people had passed through what in “Teligious experience is called conversion. ... After the roar of . . . self- confidence and complete satisfaction with the achieved, this cry of help for the weak and the vanquished, and for social justice is a new note in American politics.” Indeed, the note of Wilson’s inauguration “seemed almost as the immortal Gettysburg oration itself.” At least two periodicals saw in the inaugural address a spiritual OsBorN: Comments on Woodrow Wilson 89 quality. The gospel of Wilson’s “New Freedom,” stated the Daily News and Leader (ibid.), could be summed up by using the pene- trating parable which he had enunciated some time earlier: “Let us break into our own house and take possession of all the rooms.” Wilson inaugural address, said the Nation, showed once more that he was a man of “vision and sensitiveness, of an alert and ar- dent temperament, and filled with an apostolic sense of the great- ness of his mission.” There were parts of his speech which, accord- ing to this weekly periodical, read less like a “political tract for the times than a summons to a new crusade.” Moreover, in striking a note of semi-religious fervor, the Nation (Anonymous, 1912-1913b, pp. 915-916) contended thai the President was correctly interpret- ing the mood of a majority of Americans. Perhaps Americans ex- pected more from their government than any government could supply. At any rate, they had taken the precaution of placing in the White House a man whose first official utterance revealed the “substance of statesmanship as well as the fire of an evangelist.” By no means were the British papers without comment on Wil- son as a public speaker from the time of his first inaugural address until his memorable war message to Congress more than four years later. However, the limitations of space make necessary the pass- ing over this period. On the eve of Wilson’s war message, Cecil Spring-Rice (1917), the English Ambassador to ihe United States, wrote to his prede- cessor, James, Viscount Bryce, that “Wilson dreams of a new birth, a new era, a great democratic republic of the world, the United States of the Universe.” Moreover, The English diplomat con- fided that the American President really felt that the world could be saved by phrases and that he was the man to find the phrases. “He is absolutely sincere in this,’ added Spring-Rice to Bryce. Wilson lived alone, in a cloud from which “occasional lightening issues and mysterious thunder roars.” It was impossible, concluded the English Ambassador, “to know what passes through his mind: we only know what comes out of his lips.” The world was soon to know, in part at least, what had passed through Wilson’s mind. In his war message on the night of April 2, 1917, the President certainly revealed some things about which he had been thinking. Wilson’s indictment against German au- tocracy, said the Leeds Yorkshire Post (April 4, 1917), was “dig- 90 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nified and thorough.” He accused the Kaiser and his associates of the most wickedly virulent crimes against humanity and civiliza- tion. This provincial paper agreed with Wilson when he stated that not the people of America but the rulers of Germany had really declared war. The Yorkshire Post stated that history would justify the American President’s stand. In the clearest and most statesmanlike language, Wilson gave expression to the judgment of the American nation: “a judgment formed not hastily but with a natural hesitance (ibid.).” The Glasgow Herald (April 3, 4, 1917) did not believe that history would record a longer sustained effort to vindicate a good cause by the means of faithful words spoken more nobly than Wilson's efforts at an impartial neutrality. After discussing America’s indictment of Germany as voiced by the President, the Herald quoted Wilson’s fine conclusion “It is a fear- ful thing to lead this great and peaceful people into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars. Civilization itself seems to be in the balance, but right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the thing which we have all along carried nearest our hearts—for democracy, for the right of those who submit to author- ity to have a voice in their own government, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for the universal dominance of right by such a concern of free peoples, as will bring peace and safety to all nations, and make the world itself at last free.” Although many British sources, public and private, quoted from the President’s message, the phrase most widely repeated was “the world must be made safe for democracy.” The Liverpool Courier (April 4, 1917), for example, was one of the many moulders of public opinion to print the phrase. Having reproduced the striking Wilsonian statement, the Courier asked how could the world be safe while there existed “in the center of Europe a powerful people, equipped with all the science but with a perverted soul? Robert Machray (1917), writing in the Nineteenth Century and After, declared that “inveighing against autocracy, Wilson rejoiced in the Russian revolution and declared in a sentence that rang around the globe, that “The world must be made safe for democracy!’ ” In referring to this idea as well as to others expressed in Wilson's address, the London Daily Telegraph said no one could read the President’s speech “without being intimately conscious of the noble appeal which it makes to the highest instincts of humanity.” The OssBorN: Comments on Woodrow Wilson 9] speech symbolized democracy bursting out of a prison in which she had so long been confined. Wilson’s oratorical principles would live long in men’s memories, concluded the Daily Telegraph (April 9, 1917). In a leading editorial entitled “Hail Columbia!”, the Glasgow Herald (April 7, 1917) said that “the Wilsonian tortoise has beaten the Rooseveltian hare.” As one of the three glowing statements in the President’s message, the Herald selected also to emphasize “the world must be made safe for democracy.” In keeping with Wilson’s clarion call for a moral crusade, the people of the West had not lightly put their hands to the plough but had gone to the task with such conviction that they would not look back. Not all who used the Wilsonian “make the world safe for democracy phrase used it for the author’s purposes. The Edin- burgh Blackwood’s Magazine, after quoting the statement, added “whether the world is safe from democracy is not quite so certain.” Democracy, this periodical contended (Anonymous, 1917), was not an ideal which could be held up before all men as worth striv- ing for. “It was a mere method of government ... and it must be tried, like other methods of government, by results only.” More revealing, perhaps, was the statement made by James, Viscount Bryce (1918) to the eminent historian, George Otto Trevelyan, that it was “this catch penny talk about that, has made people, who ought to know better, indulgent to criminal lunacy of the Bol- sheviks who have done their best to ruin Europe as well as Russia.” David Lloyd George, the Prime Minister, sent a message to the American people in which he spoke of the brilliant phrases of Wilson's war message. According to the Prime Minister (London Daily Telegraph, April 7, 1917), these words represented a faith which inspired and sustained the English people in the tremen- dous sacrifices they were making. Herbert Asquith, defeated in the election of 1916, believed that Wilson’s speech would “live in the annals of eloquence as worthy and noble expositions of the aims of a great national resolve” (Manchester Guardian, April 7, 1917). Never had the fundamental issues which were at stake been stated with more precision or with greater elevation of thought and language than in the President’s address, concluded the former Prime Minister. James D. Whelpley in the Fortnightly Review emphasized Wilson's altruism in declaring that the United States asked for no 92 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES new territory, no revenge, no indemnity, and no bill of costs for the blood and treasure that might be expended in the war. Indeed, Wilson’s purpose, as stated in his war message, was to put an end for all time to Prussianism (Whelpley, 1917). The magnificent speech of President Wilson is “our greatest victory since the war began and we are unreservedly proud and thankful that it should have been made” (Manchester Guardian, April 4, 1917). The Manchester Guardian voiced another idea when it announced that every sentence in Wilson’s past speeches criticized in England and in the United States added to the splendor of the President's war message victory. “Language could not be clearer,’ continued the Guardian, and added that Wilson was careful to say that America had no quarrel with the German people. The Liverpool Courier (April 4, 1917) thought the American President should know that the Germans accepted Kaiserism and militarism for the profit they brought them. “They wilfully sold their souls to a cor- rupt materialism,” emphasized the Courier. Before Wilson found sympathy for the German people he should understand the German character, concluded this paper. Of all the momentous speeches uttered by the rulers and statesmen of the war period, President Wilson’s war speech to Congress stood out “in some respects the most remarkable of them all.” In Wilson, the Glasgow Herald (April 9, 1917) contended, the world was presented with the “unique phenomena of the idealist and scholar as ruler and lawgiver.” Wilson’s political philosophy, voiced so ably in his war message, was the fruit of a moral idealism and of his personal intellectual activities. Wilson, the Herald told its readers, interpreted clearly for the European democracies the handwriting on the wall for autocracy. His noble words, following so closely upon the Russian revolution dispelled any doubts that may have been entertained in England as to the mission and destiny of democracy. And so the English comments and evaluations of Wilson’s war message ran. Most of them were laudatory; some expressed cool- ness; only a few voiced disapproval. In November, 1918, with the signing of the Armistice, hostilities ceased. Soon after, President Wilson announced in Washington that he would attend the Paris Peace Conference and thereby added another to his long list of shattered precedents. When the President's plan was known in OsBoRN: Comments on Woodrow Wilson 93 Europe, the press, by an overwhelming majority, upheld his deci- sion. In mid-December Wilson was given an unprecedented wel- come in France. Within two weeks, the President and Mrs. Wil- son were in England for several days. His public appearances, including his speeches, were subjected to much discussion by the British papers. While the Wilsons were the guests of King George V and Queen Mary at Buckingham Palace, T. P. O’Conner published in the Daily Telegraph (December 27, 1918), a penetrating sketch of Woodrow Wilson. He quoted from a speech of Wilson’s in which the Presi- dent had attempted a self-evaluation. “I sometimes feel like a fire,” Wilson had said, “from a far from extinct volcano, and if the lava does not seem to spill over, it is because you are not high enough to see into the basin and see the caldron boil. ... In between the things that I have to do as a political officer I never think of myself as President of the United States, because I never have any sense of being identified with that office. I can hardly refrain every now and again from tipping the public the wink as much as to say ‘It is only “me” that is inside the thing.” Other English papers made note of the keen self-introspection of the American visitor (ibid., December 30, 1918; London Daily Mail, December 30, 1918). According to O'Conner, who was a member of Parliament, Wil- son appeared to be a man of constant exercise, of contented good form in the grace and alertness of his movements, in the impression of a well knit and harmonious frame. Wilson's voice was “rich and melodious, and his manner very simple, very cordial, with not a trace of that frigidity and aloofness which he complains of being attributed to him.” The President’s conversational voice was iden- tical with his oratorical voice. In public speaking, Wilson spoke in low tones but he had an unusual underswell of passion. “The mystery and the magic of language,” concluded the member of Parliament, “alway comes to your mind when you are hearing a public address of Wilson’s” (London Daily Telegraph, December 27, 1918). Shortly before the President visited Manchester, the Guardian (December 23, 1918) reported that he, more than any other statesman, realized the fundamental conditions of a world peace. He had expressed these ideas with “singular clearness and eloquence in a series of addresses delivered during the course of the present year.” 94 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES On December 28, 1918, the Daily Telegraph announced: “Yes- terday was America’s Day in Great Britain. His Majesty, King George V, in publicly welcoming Wilson stated that “We see in you a happy union of the scholar and the statesman.” Wilson framed his reply on a “high level of wise statesmanship and elo- quent appeal to the best instincts of the human heart.” In addition to two brief appearances on the balcony at Buck- ingham Palace, Wilson made two speeches in London—at Guildhall and at the Mansion House. On the former occasion an intense curiosity gripped the crowd as the distinguished American rose to speak. Wilson stood at the front of the dias, his face animated, his shoulders set well back, and faced his audience squarely. He had hardly begun to speak when a great cheer broke out “reverberating through the old hall, rolling up and down.” A few moments later, the President, flushed at prolonged hearty greeting, raised his hand as if to restore silence. It was only a simple gesture, “reminiscent perhaps of American political campaigns or even possibly of his days of university teaching.” As he began anew to deliver his oration, a reporter noted that his “whole personality seemed ab- sorbed in it.” He was obviously conscious of having some definite things to say, some specific ideas to reveal and he would state them in the plainest terms possible. His listeners soon were aware that the speaker was leaving no doubt in their minds as to what he wished to convey. Within less than fifteen minutes President Wilson had com- pleted his first formal speech in England. It was singularly free from oratorical flourishes aithough the temptation to use them must have been great (London Daily Telegraph, December 30, 1918; London Daily Mail, December 30, 1918). Of the simply ex- presed ideas, the most meaningful was a discussion of the old type of diplomacy. “The center and character of the old order,’ de- clared the speaker, “was that unstable thing which we used to call the balance of power, the thing in which the balance was de- termined by the sword which was thrown into one side or the other.” That must disappear, because it lived on “jealous watch- fulness and an antagonism of interests between rival nations.” The millions of men who had fought (many of whom were killed), had fought for a New Heaven and a New Earth. They had hoped, the President said, to rid the earth of the competitive rivalries of OsBORN: Comments on Woodrow Wilson 95 mankind and to put in their places “not antagonisms, but unity, not discord but mutual confidence and regard” (London Daily Telegraph, December 30, 1918). The Liverpool Courier (December 27, 1918) spoke the senti- ments of many throughout Great Britain when it stated that “we welcome Wilson because he brings a spirit of greater detachment than either we or our Allies could possibly possess.” The English masses gave him their complete confidence, knowing his impar- dality and his possession of that peculiar blend of idealism with practical sense which is essential to the greatest statesmanship. The London Daily Telegrapn (December 30, 1918) echoed similar feelings in speaking sympathetically about Wilson who came to them with “the ardour of an apostle to teach us how to carry out what he calls ‘the final enterprise of humanity.’ ” In speaking at the Mansion House, Wilson was more informal. He kept his hearers rollicking with laughter with one anecdote after another. From English newspapers he had learned of the general curiosity about what sort of person he was and as near as he could make out, he was supposed to be “a perfectly bloodless thinking machine.” Wilson wanted his audience to know, however, that he was composed of ail the “insurgent elements of the human race. The President continued: “I am, sometimes, by reason of a long Scottish tradition able to keep those instincts in retirement and the stern covenanter tradition that is behind me sends many an echo down my system. At times there is a dash of what I may call the Celt in me—I have no documentary evidence but I have internal evidence. I enjoy periods of delightful irresponsibility that can have no other origin.” Uproarious laughter, led by the Welsh Prime Minister, Lloyd George, momentarily prevented Wil- son's continuing his speech. Such occasions afforded him “vaca- tions from my conscience, as he termed it, and “one of the wines of life—real human companionship” (ibid.). Wilson had always found irregular fellows the most interesting and the academic man whom he was supposed chiefly to affect the most tedious. As a secret for cordial human relations, including those between nations, Wilson told his Mansion House audience about a remark made by Charles Lamb, when he said at the mention of a man’s name: “I hate that fellow.” “Why, Charles,” one of his friends re- monstrated, “I didn’t know you knew him.” “I don’t,” Lamb re- 96 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES plied, “I cannot hate a man I know.” “When we know one another as individuals and nations,” Wilson concluded pointedly, “we can- not hate one another” (ibid.). From London, Wilson went to Manchester by way of Carlisle. At the latter place, he attended religious services in a small church located on the spot where his grandparents had worshipped. The President's arrival at Free Trade Hall in Manchester, where he made his chief speech, was “as unpretentious as his appearance.” While the band played the Star-Spangled Banner, a tall angular figure in a closely fitting frock coat, walked to the platform, turned, faced the audience and bowed graciously. The crowd, looking up, saw a well proportioned person who gave an impression of physi- cal strength and energy. Looking more closely, they beheld a face that was a curious combination of heavy lines and clear cut angles. A faint smile played momentarily across a mouth that was soon shut tight in a slightly nervous expression (Manchester Guardian, December 31, 1918; Liverpool Courier, December 31, 1918). Wilson began his speech by assuring his audience that he was from a cotton producing state (Manchester was a foremost cotton city). “You cannot trade with a person you suspect,” said Wilson. Continuing to discuss international relations, but shifting from commerce to the approaching peace conference, the speaker de- clared that he was “hopeful that individual items of settlement which we are about to attempt will be altogether satisfactory. . . . There must be an easy and constant method of conference, so that troubles may be taken care of when they are little, and not allowed to grow until they are big.” Wilson realized that there was a great compulsion of common conscience. Those in responsibility for in- ternational decisions, Wilson declared in conclusion, must realize that they were “not obeying the mandates of parties or of politics; we are obeying the mandate of humanity” (Manchester Guardian, December 31, 1918; London Daily Telegraph, December 31, 1918). The President's speech, stated the local Guardian, was per- haps “the shortest great utterance for which Manchester ever as- sembled.” The huge audience, accustomed to an entirely differ- ent architecture of English oratory, found Wilson taking his seat when “only the scaffolding of the building had been erected.” For just a moment the audience might have thought that he had given it nothing, “when in point of fact he had given it everything.” The OsBorn: Comments on Woodrow Wilson 97 speech was like a page from Emerson, declared another paper, “it got across the stream by jumping from stone to stone and re- quired of its hearers the same act of keeping up” (ibid., Man- chester Guardian, December 31, 1918). “The American Presi- dent's voice is deep and resonant,’ a third paper informed its readers, “and his delivery clear and formal, tinged here and there by his country’s accent” (Liverpool Courier, December 31, 1918). Still another paper declared that the address was an “elaboration of an ideal of world-wide friendship . . . delivered in a calm and conversational style, yet punctuated now and then with an em- phatie gesture which denoted a man of affairs behind the idealist” (Leeds Yorkshire Post, December 31, 1918). The audience responded “not only wildly but even passion- ately,” said the Manchester Guardian (December 31, 1918). The speech reached the hearts of all present, as evidenced by the rapt attention given, the appiause which greeted the main points of the oration and the tumultous ovation accorded the speaker as he con- cluded (Leeds Yorkshire Post, December 31, 1918). That the President appealed to the thoughts and hopes that lay deep in the national consciousness, was the conclusion of one source (Man- chester Guardian, December 31, 1918). Within a week Wilson returned to Paris. During his brief stay in England the President had delivered several speeches, not a single one of which was longer than twenty minutes. An examina- tion of the speeches revealed that Wilson had one main point in each one. He fitted the address expertly to the occasion. In short, “he made his point, elaborated it sufficiently, and then sat down” (Leeds Yorkshire Post, December 31, 1918). As James, Viscount Bryce (1919) wrote James Ford Rhodes, “Wilson made a very good appearance here—dignified without stiffness, complete aplomb, speeches well conceived and especially well delivered.” ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express appreciation to the Woodrow Wilson Foun- dation for a grant which made possible my research in England. This was made a pleasure by the courtesies of employees at the British Museum, at the British newspaper depository in suburban London, and at the Bodleian Library of Oxford University. I am 98 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES also indebted to the University of Florida for a grant to pay for microfilming source materials in England. LITERATURE CITED ANnonyMous. 1912. Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, vol. 114, pp. 7-8. =, MGI2Z=N9isas- Nation oly 2 sppw ale 24 ———, 1912-1913b. Nation; vol. 12, pp. 909-916: ———. 1913. Spectator: A Weekly Review of Politics, Literature, Theology and Art, vol. 109, pp. 392-394. ———. 1917. President Wilson—Statesman or Politician? Blackwood’s Magazine, vol. 201, pp. 808-812. Bryce, JAMES, Viscount. 1918. To George Otto Trevelyan, June 11, 1918. Trevelyan Papers, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. . 1919. To James Ford Rhodes, January 10, 1919. Bryce Papers, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. Macuray, Ropert. 1917. President Wilson’s greatest achievement. Nine- teenth Century and After, vol. 82, pp. 1088-1100. SprRING-RicE, Ceci. 1917. To James, Viscount Bryce, January 26, 1917. Bryce Papers, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. WHELPLEY, JAMES D. 1917. America at war. Fortnightly Review, n-s., vol. 101, pp. 805-814. Department of Social Sciences, University of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(2) 1969 (1970) Steeply Dipping Strata, Marion County, Florida JAMeEs R. UNDERWOOD, JR. STEEPLY dipping beds associated with a small asymmetrical fold in Eocene Ocala Limestone are exposed in a limerock quarry in northern Marion County, and it is believed that this occurrence is sufficiently unusual to be recorded. The folded beds are visible over a distance of some 20 feet along the west wall of the quarry and may represent deformation of soft sediment or possibly drag along a small fault. LOCATION The Norris quarry, immediately west of new U. S. 441 on the property of the Norris Cattle Company, is in the northeast part of section 1, Township 14 S, Range 21 E. The quarry is 14.9 miles south of the north line of Marion County, 6.6 miles north of the city limits of Ocala, and 0.8 mile north of the intersection of U. S. 441 and the Martin-Anthony Road. Construction of U. S. 441 partly filled the quarry; its east wall is now the roadbed of the highway (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. View northwest into Norris limerock quarry from U. S. 441. Principal area of disturbed strata is in west wall below small hill, left center. 100 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES GEOLOGIC SETTING Marion County is in the Central Highlands physiographic divi- sion and in that part of peninsular Florida where the Ocala Lime- stone crops out or is covered by a thin veneer of younger sediment. The outcrop of disturbed beds is near the axis of the southeast plunging Ocala Arch. The Ocala Arch is largely due to isostatic uplift in relationship to periods of erosion—Late Oligocene, Middle Miocene, and . . . Plio-Pleistocene. There is no evidence of com- pression (Brooks, personal communication, 1968). A number of minor structural anomalies are associated with the arch, and some of them have been interpreted as faults (Brooks, 1966, p. 39). The primary strike of fractures and lineations in this part of Florida is northeast and northwest (Vernon, 1951); a secondary strike is north (Brooks, personal communication ). The deformed rock is fossiliferous chalky biosparite. A com- posite measured section of Brooks (Brooks and Underwood, 1964, p. 22-24) beginning in another quarry about one mile due south of the Norris quarry, describes 66 feet of Ocala Limestone plus some 40 feet of younger rock. At the Norris quarry, only the upper 40 feet of the Ocala is exposed. Stereoscopic study of aerial photographs of the quarry and sur- rounding region revealed no surface evidence of faults or folds. The aerial photographs were made from the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service in January, 1964. The area of interest is on Index Sheet No. 2, Marion County, and the pertinent photo- graphs, scale 1:20,000, are CDP, 2 EE 12-16, inclusive. DEFORMED STRATA Although the quarry is easily visible from U. S. 441, it is im- possible to detect the deformed rock until within 10 yards or so of the quarry wall. Surprisingly, the only bedding visible throughout the quarry is at the two places, one along the south wall but prin- cipally along the west wall, where the bedding is distorted. The beds range from one-fourth to two inches in thickness but average about one-half inch (Fig. 2). At the southeast corner of the quarry the limestone is bedded; apparent dip is 11° NW. The principal area of disturbed beds in the quarry, however, is along the north half of the west wall where dips range from 0) to 90° (Fig. 2). At this place, beginning about 101 Steeply Dipping Strata UNDERWOOD ‘yWNey g[qissod Jo uoytsod oyeurtxoidde ut YOHS JOOF-OALY “plvMUMOP SBUISveIOOp dip IM “(YyNOS) ZfoT 0} spoq [VOAOA-IvOU 0} [VOQAIA ‘(You ) FYSI1 0} oulonue Jo qui doa} qYsil danoyT “Your GQ yoqr S9BVIDAV PUL SOYOUI ()'G 0} YOUT CZ'~ WOT sasuvI Speq JO ssowpryy, “oulfonur [juts Fo ysoeip :4fa] amoT ‘sxe ploy jo uoy -Isod ojevurtxoidde ul yous ,OOF-oATy ‘Arend SHION JO [[VA\ JsomM ‘ouTpoRUL [[eUg :7YysW waddp ‘OUT[O}UR [ROLOUIUTASY [[eUIS ay} JO sixe oY} JO UOT}sOd 9} J SuUIpUeys SI IoATOSqG ‘Arend sion JO [[PM som “VIS poqinysiq :zfa) waddQ °% “Bly 102 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 5 feet above the floor of the quarry and extending for a distance of some 20 feet along the quarry wall, thin beds of Ocala Limestone have been deformed into a small asymmetrical anticline with the steep south limb vertical or nearly so and the north limb dipping 30°. The axis of the fold strikes N. 60° E and plunges 30° to the northeast. On the south flank of the small anticline, for a distance of some 5 feet, the beds of limestone are vertical and near vertical. They are traceable upward only 6-7 feet; toward the bottom of the quar- ry their dip decreases to 60° to the south. There is no visible plane or zone of discontinuity between the beds that are clearly a part of the small fold to the north and the adjacent vertical and near- vertical beds whose dip decreases downward. Along the west wall one can see faint traces of other inclined beds near, but not traceable into, the principal zone of distorted Strata. POSSIBLE ORIGIN OF DEFORMATION The deformation may have been tectonic, ie. drag along a fault or merely a small fold, or the deformation may have been the result of subaqueous slumping. Solution subsidence or collapse, volume change produced by hydration or dehydration, and differ- ential compaction must also be considered. Thin-sections of the distorted rock show nothing to indicate that the structure is organic, e.g. an algal bioherm. The lack of visible bedding in the quarry, except deformed bed- ding, and the apparent lack of planes or zones of differential move- ment between the deformed rocks and those underlying or within the distorted beds themselves, must be considered in any explana- tion of source of the deformation. Pirkle (personal communication ) suggested that the stratification may have been produced by what- ever mechanism produced the folding. A tacit assumption, which may be invalid, is that where there is no visible bedding the rock is undeformed. Subaqueous slumping and folding. Most deformation of this type is on a smaller scale and is more intense or complicated than the deformation in question. Penecontemporaneous slumping and deformation on the scale of the fold is thought to require a more uneven sea floor topography than there is any reason to suggest UnpDERWoobD: Steeply Dipping Strata 103 for the environment of deposition of the Ocala Limestone. More- over, no subaqueous slump folds have been reported elsewhere in the Ocala although this rock unit is exposed in numerous quar- ries in the region. On the other hand, it is possible that the small structure along the west wall is nothing more than a non-tectonic asymmetrical anticline of penecontemporaneous origin and that the vertical beds to the south are merely a part of the steep limb. If so there must be a zone or plane of discontinuity created by differential move- ment between the deformed strata and the apparently undisturbed strata below. This zone or plane is not visible, but this may be the result of annealing and consequent lack of expression on _ the weathered surface of the quarry wall. Brooks (personal communication) has suggested that this small fold may have been the result of flowage of soft sediment, induced perhaps by an earthquake which caused quickening and subsequent segregation of the calcareous mud and sand. The bedding thus would be false or pseudo bedding. Solution subsidence or collapse. In Florida subsurface solution of carbonate rock is common and is well known to produce draping or overlying rock and such secondarily associated features as gentle folds, joints, and faults of small displacement (Pirkle and Brooks, 1959, p. 310; Pirkle and Yoho, 1961, p. 253-257). One can envision an anticline developing by differential solution as younger strata drape over a pillar produced by solution of more soluble rock on its flanks. This origin of the deformation in the Norris quarry seems unlikely primarily because of the lack of evidence that solution occurred in the underlying rock, but also because vertical move- ment involved in collapse or draping would seem more likely to result in the development of a synclinal than anticlinal fold. Fur- ther, solution subsidence short of catastrophic collapse normally develops symmetrical or near-symmetrical draping; the associated steeply dipping and gently dipping beds displayed here do not appear to be the result of collapse. Volume changes produced by hydration and dehydration. Vol- ume changes such as those produced by the hydration of anhydrite and clay may produce a variety of folds and even faults. Within the Ocala Limestone, however, beds of relatively pure clay are not known. Although gypsum and anhydrite are not known in the Ter- 104 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tiary System in peninsular Florida, they, together with clay, make up a significant part of the Comanche and Gulf series of the Creta- ceous System. Many hundreds of feet of relatively incompetent rock capable of absorbing considerable distortion separate the Ocala Limestone from the Cretaceous System, however, and _ it seems unlikely that volume changes in these deeply buried rocks, if they have in fact occurred, would have affected the surface strata. Differential compaction. Differential compaction of fine-grained sediments can produce folds but such folds. characteristically, have gently dipping flanks. It is difficult to envison steep and vertical dips resulting from this mechanism, especially where the total thickness of strata involved is so small. Tectonic fold. The fact that the fold in question is a distinct anticline rather than a simple down fold, suggests that if it is tec- tonic it developed through lateral compression, and if, as they appear to be, the underlying strata are undisturbed, there must be a plane or zone of differential movement separating the folded strata from those underlying. That there is no visible evidence for such a zone or plane suggests that the fold was not produced by the process of décollement. The lack of compressional features in the region further reduces the possibility that the deformed strata rep- resent a tectonic fold. Drag along a fault. The downward decrease in dip of the verti- cal beds to the south and the distinct fold to the north suggest that the distorted strata may represent drag along a vertical or near- vertical fault, north side up. The anticlinal nature of the fold to the north also suggests that if the deformation was produced by fault- ing, the fault may dip steeply to the north, may have had at least a slight degree of reverse movement, and thus may have been pro- duced by compressional stress. Again, the isostatic uplift of the Ocala Arch and general jack of compressional features in the region weaken this hypothesis. The absence of a visible fault surface or zone may be the result of annealing of the limestone, although certainly the usual result of fracture development in the Ocala Limestone is solution along, and subsequent enlargement of, the fracture. Flexural slip folding of the rock near the fault might account, however, for the presence of clearly defined bedding only in the distorted zone. It is possible that incipient bedding planes were created at the time of deposi- UnpvEerRwoop: Steeply Dipping Strata 105 tion, perhaps by thin films of clay alternating with calcareous sedi- ment, and that bedding planes are visible today only where difter- ential movement along the clay films produced by flexural slip folding has accentuated the discontinuity. Subsequent differential weathering would further accentuate the surface expression of any such inhomogeneity. The suggestion that the distortion may in fact be associated with faulting is strengthened by the presence in the vicinity of at least two presumably minor faults. One occurs at the southeast corner of the quarry where there is a fracture surface with clearly defined slickensides. Just below the slickensides, solution along the fracture has created a large cavity into which it is possible for a small per- son to squeeze. The fault strikes, as well as could be determined, N 10° E and dips 71° SE; the sense of relative movement could not be ascertained. The rake could not be measured but is vertical or nearly so. No visible bedding is associated with this fault. In the south wall of the quarry immediately east of U. S. 441 and just south of the Norris quarry, another minor fault was identi- fied by slickensides on the fracture surface. The sense of relative movement is unknown; the strike is N 65° W, and the dip is vari- able along the trace of the fracture on the wall of the quarry. Up- ward the dip is vertical or near-vertical; along the lower 15 feet it is 68° SW. Rake of the slickensides is 80° NW. Three fractures, which may or may not be faults, are clearly visible along the quarry wall to the north of the deformed beds. As well as could be determined their strikes are, beginning with the southernmost fracture N 35° E, N 80° W, and N 45° E; their dips are vertical or nearly so. Part of the southernmost fracture exhibits a firm, relatively smooth surface upon which one would expect to see slickensides were the fracture in fact a fault. The strikes of these fractures do not appear to coincide with the apparent strike of the axis of the anticlinal fold nor with the strikes of the other small faults in the area. Although a fault-drag origin for the detormed beds is somewhat compatible with the evidence and may explain the origin of the bedding, it does not explain the abrupt disappearance of visible bedding both above and below the zone in which it is so clearly expressed. To produce the deformation, the fault almost surely 106 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES would have extended vertically through more of the limestone than the six to seven feet that is clearly bedded. CONCLUSION There appears to be no conclusive evidence for the origin of the deformed strata in the Norris quarry, Marion County, Florida. The presence of nearby minor faults and the gross geometry of the de- formed strata suggest that the deformation might well have resulted from drag along a small high-angle fault. An alternative explana- tion is that the deformation was produced by subaqueous slumping. Both require the presence of a plane or zone along which there was differential movement but for which physical evidence is not ap- parent. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The unusual outcrop in the Norris quarry was first called to my attention by Dr. E. C. Pirkle, University of Florida. On February 24, 1967, the Norris quarry was Stop 4 on the Thirteenth Field Trip of the Southeastern Geological Society. During this stop, various theories of origin of the deformed strata were discussed by members of the Society. I am grateful to Drs. H. K. Brooks, E. C. Pirkle, and F. N. Blan- chard of the University of Florida and to Dr. F. W. Daugherty, West Texas State University, for reading the manuscript and offering helpful comments. Irwin Novak, then a graduate student at the University of Florida, assisted me in the field in 1965. LITERATURE CITED Brooks, H. K. 1966. In N. K. Olson (ed.). Geology of the Miocene and Pliocene series in the North Florida-South Georgia area. Atlantic Coastal Plain Geological Association Seventh Annual Field Conference Guide- book and Southeastern Geological Society Twelfth Annual Field Confer- ence Guidebook, pp. 37-45. Brooks, H. K., AND J. R. UNDERWooD, JR. (ed.). 1967. Miocene-Pliocene problems of peninsular Florida. Southeastern Geological Society Thir- teenth Field Trip Guidebook, 36 p. UnpbERwoop: Steeply Dipping Strata 107 PirKLE, E. C., AND H. K. Brooxs. 1959. Origin and hydrology of Orange Lake, Santa Fe Lake, and Levy Prairie lakes of north-central peninsular Florida. Jour. Geology, vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 302-317. PrrKLE, E. C., AnD W. H. Youo. 1961. Folding or warping resulting from solution with associated joints and organic zones in clayey sands at Edgar, Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 247- 266. VERNON, RoBerT O. 1951. Geology of Citrus and Levy counties, Florida. Florida State Geol. Survey Bull. 33, 256 pp. Department of Geology, West Texas State University, Canyon, Texas 79015. Present address: Department of Geology, University of Libya, c/o Esso Standard Libya, P. O. Box 385, Tripoli, Libya. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(2) 1969 (1970) Seasonal Changes in Foraminifera at Seahorse Key DALE INGMANSON AND ARNOLD Ross Lone term fluctuations in shallow-water foraminiferal popula- tions have received little attention (Phleger, 1960a, 1960b; Parker and Athearn 1959; Lynts, 1966). Our study was initiated in 1963 to determine the seasonal fluctuations in populations of calcareous for- aminifers at Seahorse Key, one of a group of small islands com- prising the Cedar Keys in the northeast Gulf of Mexico. Seahorse Key is situated 25 km south of the Suwannee River and 5 km south of the town of Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida (29°07'N, 83°05’W; Fig. 1). The keys are predominantly a series of mangrove islands, sand hills, shell mounds, or complexes of all three separated by tidal channels. Scattered among these islands are oyster-bars and shallow, shifting sand banks. Topography of the Cedar Keys is controlled by a regular lime- stone plain, the “Ocala Limestone” of late Eocene age, gently slop- ing seaward, on which all of the keys rest unconformably. Seahorse Key is composed of relatively pure quartz sand presumably trans- ported to the area during the Pleistocene; sediment analyses indi- cate that this island is more than likely a remnant windbuilt dune (Brooks, pers. comm.). Alongshore drift currents prevalent in the fall and winter are now the major erosional agents in this region. The presence of this island, as well as others in the group, results largely from the stabilizing influence of vegetation (Rhizophora SO Dd le PROCEDURES From September 1963 through August 1964 monthly samples were collected during daylight hours at each of five marked sta- tions selected as being representative of the littoral benthos of this island (Fig. 1). Stations 1-3 were in unconsolidated lutites influ- enced by circulating tidal currents. Station 4 was adjacent to an oyster-bar comprised wholly of Crassostrea virginica Gmelin. Station 5 was on a sandy bank populated by the sand dollar Mellita quinquiesperforata (Leske). Monthly samples from each station were obtained over an area of less than 1 m?. This method of sampling obviated the problems INGMANSON AND Ross: Changes in Foraminifera 109 CHANNEL DEADMANS KEY Fig. 1. Collecting stations (circled) at Seahorse Key, Florida. Bottom topography based on U.S.G.S. Seahorse Key Quadrangle (7.5 minute series, 1955). Datum mean low water; soundings in feet. 110 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES associated with sampling over larger lateral distances (Shiffett, 1961; Lynts, 1966). Samples were collected with a punch corer constructed from a beverage can, one end of which was removed and a hole punched in the center of the other. The can was inserted manually into the sediment, open end first, to a depth of about 8 cm. A cork stopper was placed in the punched hole and, as it was lifted, a partial vacuum was created sufficient to retain the sample intact. The open end was then sealed, the cork stopper removed, and about 50 ml of rose bengal solution added through the punched hole (Walton, 1952: 56). In the laboratory the sample was extruded, and the top 3 mm (vol.=10.0 cm?) sliced off and wet sieved through standard 5 and 170 mesh sieves. The 170 mesh fraction was washed into an evaporating dish, dried, and then floated in CCI, (Glaessner, 1963: 41). The foraminiferal concentrates thus obtained were stored in glass vials. Temperature was measured with a calibrated centigrade ther- mometer in situ at the substrate-water interface. Salinity was com- puted from temperature corrected density readings obtained with a hydrometer (Zerbe and Taylor, 1953). A portable Beckman pH meter was used to measure both Eh and pH, with a calomel reference electrode. A glass electrode was used for pH and a platinum for Eh readings. Readings were ob- tained at the water-sediment interface by introducing the electrodes directly (Mannheim, 1961). Light penetration was measured only in the vicinity of Station 1 with a photometer adapted for marine use (Pettersson and Land- berg, 1934). Readings were taken at depths of one and two meters with a standard red camera filter, and without a filter. RESULTS Maximum tidal range at Seahorse Key normally did not exceed 1.3 m during our period of observation. Tidal variation in excess of 1.6 m at Seahorse Key exposes an area 200-300 meters wide with isolated tide pools. During spring tides Stations 1-3 were exposed, Station 4 was rarely and Station 5 was never exposed. However, when on-shore high winds prevail tidal variation is retarded. Be- cause shallow banks surround the island wave action is minimal. The pH readings are below the normal range of pH in ocean INGMANSON AND Ross: Changes in Foraminifera WO RABICB el Values of pH and Eh obtained during 1964 Salinity Station 4 ppt pH Eh March 28.5 7.50 —370 mv April 28.4 7.30 —355 mv May 31.0 7.90 —380 mv June 28.8 7.60 —390 mv waters, which is attributable to the influx of fresh water from the Suwannee River and drainage from mainland tidal marshes. Water in the Suwannee River is comprised principally of highly acidic drainage (pH=5.0-6.0) from the Okefenokee Swamp. Seepage from the Ocala Limestone aquifer directly into the sea may also account in part for variation in pH. Measurements of Eh give only a general indication of oxidation- reduction activity. Because of difficulties encountered in obtaining measurements, the readings presented may understate natural en- vironmental conditions (Mannheim, 1961). In spite of limitations in technique, it can be said that the bottom at Station 4 is highly reducing, but significantly less so at the other stations. Water temperature at Seahorse Key ranged from 11.5-31.5 C, with slightly lower and higher temperatures occurring for short periods during the study year (Fig. 2). Temperatures as high as 39 C were recorded at the water-sediment interface at stations ex- posed during the time of summer spring tides. Salinity ranged trom 28.4 to 34.6 ppt. High salinities were re- corded in the winter when flow from the Suwannee River is re- duced and northwest winds predominate, pushing water from the Gulf of Mexico shoreward. In the spring and summer the volume of water carried by the Suwannee River increases, the prevailing winds are from the southeast, and precipitation increases thus ac- counting for reduced salinities during that season. Light penetration measurements and visual observations indicate that the water is not clear at any time during the year. Since the surrounding banks are very shallow and the substrata are uncon- solidated, tidal currents provide enough energy to keep sediments suspended. In addition, a large amount of flocculated organic material is continually introduced by the Suwannee and Waccasassa Rivers. 112 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 32 TEMPERATURE cqmmeees oo oe ik 4 30 SALI N laleay? BECEROCCRRRCRRSRTR ERR E CREE a 4 “a 28 all) 26 24 = a 35 4 22 ‘ 34 20 Way 33 sensaaec™ . rt gust net ast punt aust qutt ast gut a 4 0) N TEMPERATURE, C i} = "ta, = SALINITY (ppt) 196311964 MONTHS Fig. 2. Averages of monthly temperature and salinity for October 1963 to August 1964. The data collected relating to dissolved oxygen content revealed no anomalies, and the waters are in approximate equilibrium with INGMANSON AND Ross: Changes in Foraminifera 113 the atmosphere. Between January and March 1964 the dissolved oxygen content, measured by the Winkler method (Strickland and Parsons, 1960), varied from 4.1 to 7.2 ppm. TABLE 2 Light penetration values for east end of Seahorse Key in vicinity of Station 1 Total Red Depth in Light Filter Meters (percentage ) (percentage ) May 26, 1964 if! 87 85 ws 65 56 June 28, 1964 1 88 85 2 67 62 February 29, 1965 1 84 83 2 61 55 FORAMINIFERAL ASSEMBLAGE The foraminifers collected at the five stations are listed below. All of the species were found at each station, but not always at the same time. No attempt was made to segregate or prepare the samples for recovery of arenaceous types, although many were noted in the samples. Family Rzehakinidae Miliammina fusca (Brady ) Family Miliolidae Quinqueloculina compta Cushman Quinqueloculina costata (dOrbigny ) Quinqueloculina seminula (Linnaeus ) Massilina peruviana (dOrbigny ) Triloculina oblonga (Montagu ) Family Discorbidae Discorbis floridanus Cushman Family Rotaliidae Ammonia beccarii parkinsoniana ( d’Orbigny ) Ammonia beccarii tepida (Cushman) 114 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Family Elphidiidae Elphidium gunteri galvestonesis Kornfeld Elphidium mexicanum Kornfeld Elphidium poeyanum (dOrbigny ) Family Eponididae Eponides antillarum (dOrbigny ) Family Cibicididae Cibicides robertsonianus (Brady ) Family Nonionidae Nonion depressula matagordana Kornfeld Family Anomalinidae Anomalina io Cushman Hanzawaia strattoni (Applin) DISCUSSION The Seahorse Key foraminiferal associations found during this survey approximate those reported from other areas bordering on the Gulf of Mexico (Phleger, 1960a: 126; Phleger, 1960b: 267), However, the distribution patterns we encountered contain elements of both an interdistributary bay and a beach fauna which, as Wal- ton (1964: 158) describes, would be considered a marginal marine fauna. The faunal assemblage is dominated by species or varieties of Elphidium, Quinqueloculina, and Ammonia beccarii. To this assemblage must be added, at least for the Seahorse Key area, the miliolid, Triloculina oblonga. This species comprised from 15-45 per cent of the total population at each station throughout the year; in most samples it seasonally replaced Quinqueloculina as a dominant element. We infer that seasonal variations in environ- mental parameters are probably insufficient to cause marked chang- es in faunal composition between stations, although the area is characterized by gross temperature and salinity fluctuations. Critical studies of core samples taken at essentially the same stations but at a later date, were found to lack foraminiferal tests (Jenkins, 1966). Although we question, in general, the efficacy of Walton’s test for living/dead foraminifers, our studies indicate a standing crop in excess of 85 per cent. Either dissolution, preda- tion, or winnowing accounts for these observations, but which one or combination is most effective has not yet been determined. Population density and seasonal patterns at Stations 1-3 are essentially similar, with high counts during January-February and INGMANSON AND Ross: Changes in Foraminifera 115 May followed and separated by significant lows. The minor den- sity peaks in May are in synchrony with the peak flow of nutrient rich waters from the Suwannee River in addition to the seasonal outburst of diatoms. Since diatoms constitute one of the major food sources of foraminifers (Meyers, 1943: 441; Bandy, 1956: 188), and optimum reproductive temperatures (Bradshaw, 1957) are reached at this time, the increments are not unexpected. We infer that the low counts from June through September correlate with lower salinity and rising seasonal temperatures that readily affect the alternate drying and wetting of the flats fronting the beach. The major peaks in January and February at these stations and Station 4 are difficult to interpret. Evidently, environmental conditions are more than sufficient to permit reproduction and normal shell growth during this period at least in Miliammina fusca and Ammo- nia beccarii (Parker and Athearn, 1959: 388; Phleger, 1960a: 271). Station 4 differed from other stations in that the sediments surrounding the oyster bar were rarely exposed, and Eh values indicated a reducing environment. However, the population density exceeded greatly that of all other stations, and large numbers of the arenaceous species Trochamina inflata (Montagu), T. inflata mexicana Kornfeld and Arennoparrella mexicana (Kornfeld) were encountered each month, but only rarely at other stations. The most abundant species at this station was Triloculina oblonga, the tests of which were, for the most part, extremely small, and con- stituted during peak periods as much as 45 per cent of the total monthly sample. Small size may be indicative of prevailing opti- mum parameters necessary for reproduction (Phleger, 1960a: 272). The relationship between the overall high population density and the oyster-bar environment is unclear. Oyster fecal-pellets may serve as a source of year around nutriment that is either utilized directly or broken down into suitable form by bacteria (Clark, pers. comm., 1969). The delayed major peak in April, preceded by a low probably represents unusual environmental conditions, which we failed to monitor during this period. The psammophilic echinoid Mellita is the predominant epi- and in-faunal element at Station 5. The foraminiferal population at this station is perhaps the most stable because it is not exposed at any time during the year. The proximity to a minor ship channel lead- ing to the marine laboratory pier (not shown on map), and the 116 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1126 Station 1 Oi, CHA Stations 2 2055 2525907 537 547 Station=s 2855 Station’ 4 788 714 Stations» 417 396 930 526 517 501 1963 | 1964 Fig. 3. Histograms of total foraminiferal populations. INGMANSON AND Ross: Changes in Foraminifera IE 7 reworking of sediments by Mellita may contribute to a relatively low overall population density, especially during the summer months. Shallow-water foraminiferal populations, in general, undergo seasonal density fluctuations (Parker and Athearn, 1959). High den- sity occurs normally in the spring or summer, and lower densities in the fall or winter. These fluctuations are attributable to any one of several factors. However, relative to the Seahorse Key fauna, we believe that the availability of food coupled with lethal sum- mer temperatures are the major factors controlling seasonal densi- ties. The asynchrony in population peaks and lows probably re- flects a causal relationship between tidal exposure, salinity, avail- able nutriment and variations in the physical configuration of each of the micro-environments sampled. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are indebted to H. K. Brooks, and R. A. Edwards, Univer- sity of Florida, for their suggestions and comments during the course of this study. We thank Francis L. Parker, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, for help in identifying certain species, and Mary Clark, San Diego State College, for information on foraminiferal nutrition. Anne Acevedo, San Diego Natural History Museum, drafted the text figures. Financial support from the San Diego State College Foundation to cover publication costs is gratefully acknow]l- edged. LITERATURE CITED Banpy, O. 1956. Ecology of foraminifera in northeastern Gulf of Mexico. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 274-G, pp. 179-204, pls. 29-31. BrapsHaw, J. S. 1957. Laboratory studies on the rate of growth of the for- aminifer Streblus beccarii (Linné) var. tepida Cushman. Jour. Paleont., vol. 31, pp. 1138-1147. GuLaAEssNER, M. F. 1963. Principles of micropaleontology. Hafner Publishing Co., New York, 296 p. Jenkins, D. M. 1966. A study of some Holocene foraminifera from the Cedar Keys area of Florida. Thesis, University of Florida. Lynts, G. W. 1966. Variation of foraminiferal standing crop over short lateral distances in Buttonwood Sound, Florida Bay. Limnol. Oceanogr., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 562-566. MANNHEIM, F. 1961. In situ measurements of pH and Eh in natural waters and sediments. Stockholm Contr. Geol., vol. 8, no. 3, p. 29. 118 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Myers, E. H. 1943. Life activities of foraminifera in relation to marine ecology. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. 86, no. 3, pp. 439-458. Parker, F. L., AnD W. D. ATHEARN. 1959. Ecology of marsh foraminifera in Paponesset Bay, Mass. Jour. Paleon., vol. 33, pp. 333-343. PETTERSSON, H., AND S. LANDBERG. 1943. Submarine daylight. Goteborgs Kungl. Vetenskaps-och Vitterhets-samhalles Handlingar, femte Foljden, Ser. B, Band 3, no: 7, pp. I-13: PHLEGER, F. B. 1960a. Ecology and distribution of recent foraminifera. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 297p. — —. 1960b. Sedimentary patterns of microfaunas in northern Gulf of Mexico, in Shepard, F. P., et al., Recent sediments, Northwest Gulf of Mexico. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Tulsa, Oklahoma, pp. 267-301. SuHirFLETT, E. 1961. Living, dead, and total foraminiferal faunas, Heald Bank, Gulf of Mexico. Micropaleontology, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 45-54. STRICKLAND, J. D. H., anp T. R. Parsons. 1960. A manual of sea water analysis. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Bull. 125, pp. 1-185. Watton, W. R. 1952. Techniques for recognition of living foraminifera. Contr. Cush. Found. Foram. Res., vol. 3, pp. 56-60. ———. 1964. Recent foraminiferal ecology and paleoecology, in Imbrie, J. And N. Newell, approaches to paleoecology, John Wiley, New York, pp. 15234 ZERBE, W. B., AND C. B. Taytor. 1953. Sea water: temperature and density reduction tables. U.S. Dept. Comm., Coast and Geodetic Survey, Sp. publ. no. 298, U. S.'G. P.O... Wash. DD? GC. Department of Physical Sciences, San Diego State College, San Diego, California 92115, and Natural History Museum, Balboa Park, Box 1390, San Diego, California 92112. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(2) 1969 (1970) Photo-related Aging in Spirodela oligorrhiza (Lemnaceae) Joan P. Ostrow AnD Marinus J. DIJKMAN Mucu of the present knowledge of the factors which contribute to senescence in plants has come from research not originally de- signed to produce such knowledge, but rather as by-products of other forms of investigation. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of a specific environmental influence, i.e., photoperiod, upon the life span of Spirodela oligorrhiza (Lemna- caea ). Very little work has been done on the effect of photoperiod on senescence in plants. Olmsted (1951) examined such an effect on Acer saccharum (sugar maple). In this species, delayed senescence is positively related to length of constant photoperiod. When the cocklebur, Xanthium, is exposed to a one-hour light interruption midway through the dark period (Krizek, Mcllrath, and Vergara, 1966) an increased life span occurs. Cyanopsis tetragonoloba, in- troduced from India as a possible forage crop, produces two types of leaves; a simple juvenile type and a trifoliate adult form. The trifoliate forms are initiated earlier in the longer photoperiods (at 30 C) than in the shorter (Sparks and Postlethwait, 1967). The authors suggest a possible hormonal (giberellic acid) involvement. Steward (1965) noted that a thorough study of the chemical effects of growth-controlling substances would most likely yield the linkage between environmental effects and the responses so elicited. It is apparent that, in a manner not yet defined, photoperiod and the production of certain plant hormones are intricately related (Os- borne, 1963). In addition, in some way this exerts a complex bio- chemical effect at the protein synthesis or nucleotide levels which is capable of inducing or retarding the process of senescence in plants. The present work was supported in part by Grant HD 00142 from the National Institutes of Health. MATERIALS AND METHODS Spirodela oligorrhiza meets all the requirements necessary for an organism to be considered as a satisfactory tool in an aging study: 1) the life span is short enough in terms of the time allotted 120 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to the investigator, 2) it is small enough to conform to the limits of space available, 3) its growth requirements can be easily met, and 4) it is practicable to obtain a large number of organisms of the same age at a given time. In addition, it is available in large num- bers, is genetically uniform, and is not difficult to keep under aseptic conditions. The life span is short (28 days). It is small in size, and grows on a chemically defined medium. The plant is green, flat, and oval in shape, with a longitudinal axis measuring approximately 3 mm. Its vegetative reproduction consists in the formation of daughter plants, commonly termed “fronds” in an at- tempt to avoid commitment as to their derivation. These are pro- duced, once every three days, from a meristem on each side of the proximal end of the original mother plant. It is therefore possible to obtain a large number of plants of approximately the same age. By repeated washings in 10 per cent Chlorox® solution, an aseptic clone was obtained. It was necessary to transfer the surviving sterile organisms several times until a great enough quantity was obtained for this study. The fronds were grown in one-quarter strength Hutner’s min- eral nutrient solution as was determined to be the optimum concen- tration for the species (Boss, Dijkman, and Theiling, 1963). Aliquots of 25 ml of this solution were distributed into forty 125 ml Ehrle- meyer flasks, plugged with cotton gauze, and capped with either aluminum foil or brown paper and string. Capping prevents con- tamination during storage. The flasks were then autoclaved at 18 pounds of pressure for 15 minutes. The microphytotrons (Boss, Dijkman, and Russell, 1963) are located in a special room, the temperature of which is maintained at approximately 60 F. These are well-insulated and well-ventilated. Each chamber contains a thermostat, an electric fan, and three TABLE 1 Mean life span of Spirodela oligorrhiza under different conditions of photo- period Hours of light No. of plants Mean life span (days) 8 35 33.4 12 36 Solel 16 39 26.3 20 36 22.6 24 40 22.8 Ostrow AND DIJKMAN: Aging in Duckweed 121 centrifugal blowers. Lighting is supplied by both fluorescent lamps and incandescent bulbs (to eliminate the possibility of localized hot spots). By changing the position of these lamps, the light intensity in the chambers could be altered. Temperature in the microphytotrons was regulated at 27+2C, and the light intensity adjusted to 1,700 foot-candles, conditions determined previously as the species optimum under the described experimental set-up. Photoperiods were varied by the use of time switches. Sterile technique was used throughout this experiment. Fronds were transferred to new media every 7 days to insure adequate nutrition. As shown by Boss and his associates, during this time period the nutrient supply does not become limiting. Photoperiod regimens were adjusted in the microphytotrons as follows: 24 hours of light; 20 hours of light, 4 hours of darkness; 16 hours of light, 8 hours of darkness; 12 hours of light, 12 hours of darkness; and 8 hours of light, 16 hours of darkness. Cultures were grown under each respective regimen prior to the selection of the P, (Parent) generations, to insure that the plants were adapted to their en- vironments. Forty plants, in 4 groups of 10 each, were selected from each regimen. For this study daughter fronds were considered to be in- dependent plants when half of their longitudinal axis projected from the pocket of the parent plant. This was designated as the first day in their life cycle. An earlier experiment (Wangerman and Lacey, 1953) had indi- cated that the removal of daughter fronds in Lemna minor, a closely related species, is independent of aging. Using this as precedent, daughter fronds were removed without injury to the parent plants, counted, and then discarded. This eliminated the necessity of a marker. Towards the end of their life cycle, the plants begin to lose chlorophyll, and extensive yellowing occurs. A complete absence of visible chlorophyll in the fronds of individual plants was inter- preted as denoting their death. At the death of the last plants in each group, the experiment was terminated. Hypotheses were tested by use of the Chi-square test and by variance analysis. 122 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES RESULTS The mean life span of S. oligorrhiza varied under different photoperiod regimens, as indicated in Table 1. There occurs gen- erally a decrease in life span with an increase in photoperiod. The decrease is marked for 4 to 20 hours of light, but life spans for 20 and 24 hours of light are essentially the same. Figure 1 graphically illustrates this information—with confidence limits at the 90.0 per cent level. TABLE 2 Rate of production of daughter fronds by Spirodela oligorrhiza under vary- ing photoperiods Time (days) Light Fronds (hours ) 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 207: (total no. ) 8 30 Sil 43 20 3 147 12 40 AT 45 29 il 172 16 50 60 54 liv 3 184 20 46 61 39 7 4 167 24 43 66 51 5) 6 181 The hypothesis that all the organisms exhibited similar mor- talities was tested by the use of the Chi-square method. Results indicate that, aside from mean life span, the form of senescence in these organisms is similar. With the exception of the sample under 24 hours of light, the range from time of death of the first frond to the death of the last frond was 12-14 days. In that group, the interval was 20 days, due to the premature death of a single frond; for all other plants, the time interval was 15 days. A typical survival curve was prepared, for which per cent sur- vival was plotted against the time in days for each photoperiod regimen (Fig. 2). The variation between the different photoperiods is seen here quite clearly. The number of daughter fronds produced ranged from 147-181 (see Table 2). The slight variation showed no obvious pattern when ranked according to photoperiod. Individual daughter fronds produced under each regimen were grouped in the life cycle of the mother, as follows: 0-5 days, 6-10 days, 11-15 days, 16-20 days, and the days remaining. These data Ostrow AND DIJKMAN: Aging in Duckweed 123 as mire — 32 ee | ¢ | 30 ee a AVERAGE LIFE SPAN (DAYS) 0 8 12 16 20 24 HOURS OF LIGHT Fig. 1. 90 per cent confidence limit estimates of the mean life span of Spirodela oligorrhiza under five different photoperiod regimens. were summarized and subjected to Chi-square analysis, with verifi- cation of the hypothesis that the rate of daughter frond production is similar for all photoperiod regimens. Complete data on the rate of production of daughter fronds are presented in Table 2. QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 124 Ov Be 9€f ve ‘spottodoyoyd surdivA Jopun pzy.ios70 Djapoudg IO} S9AMO [eAIAING Z| ‘SI te Oe 8@ 9v (SAVG a4 Ni) 3 tz Wil oz 91 LA! wl Ol 4461) sanoy y% - ¢ 4461] sanoy gz 4461] sanoy 91 1461] sanoy Z| syBiy sanoy g 1 =—-— NO st Lh Ol Co) 4 Oy 09 OZ os 06 ool % TVALAYNS Ostrow AND DijKMAN: Aging in Duckweed 125 DISCUSSION Two different laboratories, that of Ashby in Great Britain and of Boss and Dijkman in the United States have selected the Lem- naceae as a source of experimental organisms in the study of the effect of the environment on aging. The primary considerations were the relatively short life span of these plants and the fact that they can be readily grown under laboratory conditions. The survival curve for S. oligorrhiza is characteristic of that which denotes a population with a low standing death rate (Pearl and Minor, 1935) throughout life, but showing a tendency to die almost simultaneously in old age. This is one of the type most commonly found throughout the plant kingdom. It is interesting to note that senescence in these plants is ap- parently independent of vegetative reproduction, i.e., it is not affect- ed by the number of daughter fronds produced or the rate at which they are produced. A plant which has a shorter mean life span, produces its progeny over a larger portion of its life cycle. These experiments have shown that it is possible to alter the life span of S. oligorrhiza by exposure to different photoperiodic condi- tions. These authors feel that the decline in life span with increasing exposure to light is most likely due to the effect of light upon the hormone content of the fronds in this species. The experimental evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that increased exposure to light results in a more rapid destruction (or inactivation) of cer- tain hormones, which results in more rapid senescence. The nature of these hormones is unknown. It is also likely that the plant pigment, phytochrome, which has been demonstrated to be most important in light-related phenom- ena, is implicated here. However, more definitive conclusions will have to await spectrophotometric analysis. Also shown, is that survival is similar for photoperiods of 20 and 24 hours. This indicates that the maximal effect occurs at 20 hours of exposure to light. All organisms in the experiment exhibited similar mortality curves although the mean life spans varied. The implication is that the way in which senescence occurs is the same, although some- thing has hastened the onset of this process. 126 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S. oligorrhiza has proven to be an excellent experimental tool for the study of aging plants. The authors intend to pursue further investigation with this species, specifically, on the relationships be- tween light duration and hormonal type and pigment content in the fronds. At the same time, chemical analyses will be performed at the levels of nucleotide and protein synthesis, with the object of elucidating some of the mechanisms which comprise the process of senescence in plants. LITERATURE CITED Boss, M. L., DiykMaAn, M. J., AND E. RussELx. 1963. Standardized culture of some Lemnaceae. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 335-346. Boss, M. L., DijkMan, M. J., AND V. B. THeminc. 1963. Aging studies on Lemna. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 175-183. Gaston, A. W. 1961. The life of the green plant. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, Inc. KrizEk, D. T., McItratu, W. J., AND B. S. VENGARA. 1966. Photoperiodic in duction of senescence in Xanthium plants. Science, vol. 151, no. 3706, pp. 95-96. OLMsTED, C. E. 1951. Experiments on photoperiodism, dormancy, and leaf age and abcission in sugar maple. Bot. Gaz., pp. 365-392. OspornE, D. J. 1963. Hormonal Control of plant death. Discovery, vol. 24, pp. 31-35. PEARL, R., AND J. R. Miner. 1935. Experimental studies in the duration of life. XIV. The comparative mortality of certain lower organisms. Quart. Rev. Biol., vol. 10, p. 60. Sparks, R. D., AND S. W. PostLeTHwaiT. 1967. Physiological control of the dimorphic leaves of Cyamopsis tetragonoloba. Amer. Jour. Bot., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 281-285. ee F.C. 1965. Plants at work. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, nc. WANGERMAN, E., AND H. J. Lacey. 1953. Studies in the morphogenesis of leaves IX. Experiments on Lemna minor with adenine, tri-iodobenzoic acid, and ultra-violet radiation. New Phytol., vol. 52, pp. 298-311. Department of Biology and Training Program in Cellular Aging, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33214. Present address of senior author: Department of Biology, Texas A and M Univer- sity, College Station, Texas 77843. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(2) 1969 (1970) Littoral Crustacea from Southwest Florida WeEsLEY L. ROUSE In recent years several studies have been conducted by the Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Miami, in estuary waters of Everglades National Park, Florida. The following annotated checklist of decapods, stomatopods, and isopods is one result of these studies. Most of the animals were collected during a study of the fresh- water requirements of animals in estuarine areas of Everglades National Park. Collections were made at stations from Chatham River in the Ten Thousand Islands to the upper Keys (Fig. 1). Other collections were made in the course of a study of the ecology of the Everglades marshes. This was supported by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Plankton collections from Shark River and Buttonwood canal during research on pink shrimp (supported by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries ) provided addi- tional material. Funds for much of the field work were provided by the United States Public Health Service, Division of Water Supply and Pollu- tion Control, Grant WP-004-01, 02, 03. Publication funds were granted by the Everglades Natural History Association. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Everglades Estuaries. Little systematic collecting of crustaceans has been done in the southwest Florida estuaries and near-shore habitats. In the late 1800's and early 1900’s some collecting was done on the shallow shelf areas by the United States Fish Com- mission vessels Fish Hawk, Albatross, Grampus and the United States steamer Bache. At about the same time Henry Hemphill made a collection of crustaceans for the United States National Museum from the Marco Island area, a few miles north of Ever- glades National Park. The collections were described by Rathbun (1918, 1925, 1930, 1937) and Holthuis (1951, 1952). Previous work on crustaceans from the area has been conducted at the University of Miami Institute of Marine Sciences by Tabb and Manning (1961), Tabb, Dubrow, and Jones (1962), Tabb and Jones (1962), Tabb, Dubrow, and Manning (1962), and Tabb and Manning (1962). Tabb and Manning (1961) produced a checklist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 128 NV390 DILNVILV ALID VAIYO14 © © QV3ALSAWOH Ava SNAVOSIA ¢ C) IWIN WG Cth Bp). CY EIA Loe AVG LOOD wy AVG YSLVMSALIHMs YSAId HLYON (os 1s dOOMNOLINE OOIXAW £1) Elmials) YSAly aqvoug YSaAld SNVW1LSO1 To WVHLVHO Florida b) Sampling stations in Everglades National Park Hyon ale RousE: Crustaceans of the Everglades 129 of the fauna of northwestern Florida Bay and the crustaceans re- ported there are included in the present list. : Dry Tortugas. Holthuis (1951, 1952) reported on the Palaemon- idae of the Americas, including the Dry Tortugas area; several new species were described. Study of the Dry Tortugas Island crusta- ceans was undertaken by Pearse (1934a, 1934b, 1934c) while the Carnegie Institute of Washington Tortugas Laboratory was open. Biscayne Bay. Voss and Voss (1955) and O’Gower and Wacasey (1967) collectively record 37 species of decapods, three isopods, and two stomatopods from the near-shore communities of Biscayne Bay. North Carolina to Florida. In 1918 Hay and Shore published on the Decapoda of North Carolina. This work, although 46 years old in 1965, remained the best reference for identification of south Florida decapods until Wiiliams (1965) published his excellent revision. The latter reference, based on Hay and Shore but supple- mented by later collections, is the most complete taxonomic work available for decapods of the West Atlantic seaboard and is re- ferred to extensively in the present checklist. Gulf of Mexico. No complete list of Gulf of Mexico crustaceans has been produced. The following references include many of the animals found in Gulf of Mexico estuaries: Ives (1891), Yucatan, West Florida; Behre (1950), Grand Isle; Whitten et al. (1950), Texas; Hedgpeth (1950), Aransas National Wildlife Refuge; Gun- ter (1950), Texas; Pearse (1952), Texas; Hildebrand (1954), brown shrimp grounds; Wass (1955), Alligator Harbor, Florida; Hulings (1961), Panama City, Florida; Menzel, (1956), St. George’s Sound- Appalachee Bay, Florida; Parker (1959), Laguna Madre, Texas; Leary (1961), Texas; Breuer (1962), Laguna Madre. ZOOGEOGRAPHY Many of the species from the coastal states of the eastern sea- board, the Gulf of Mexico, and the West Indies meet in south Flor- ida waters. Species of the Carolinian fauna of Atlantic coast states are well represented. Williams (1965) lists 69 (68 per cent) of the Everglades 103 decapods as being found in the Carolinas. As would be expected, the more northerly Virginian Province shows less re- semblance to our fauna. Wass (1963) lists 41 (32 per cent) local isopods, stomatopods, and decapods that have been recorded in Virginia. 130 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gulf of Mexico species are not as common in south Florida as the species from the Atlantic coast and the West Indies. About 35 per cent of the Everglades species have been reported as far west as Texas and less than two per cent are limited to the Gulf of Mexico. The greatest affinities are with the West Indies fauna. Approx- imately 71 per cent of the Everglades species have been taken in the Caribbean, with about 43 per cent ranging on to South America. METHODS OF COLLECTING AND STATION DESCRIPTIONS At the main stations, numbered 1 to 8 (Tables 1, 2), quantita- tive collections were made with a two-meter otter trawl (modified shrimp try-net). At station 5, a flat triangular dredge (18 inches on each side) was used with the otter trawl. A modification of the van Veen bottom grab was employed at stations 9 to 17. Crusta- ceans taken in estuary outlets to the Gulf were collected in wing nets fishing 18 square feet, and in one meter plankton nets. These provided species which were moving up and down Buttonwood Canal (18) and Shark River (19). In the North River (20) and Coot Bay Pond (21), fyke nets and various plastic and wire traps were utilized. CHECKLIST The following list contains 129 species, including 24 isopods, two stomatopods, and 103 decapods. Tabb and Manning (1961), in their checklist of northwestern Florida Bay animals, list eight iso- pods, of which Cymothoa caraibica and Sphaeroma destructor were not taken during this study. Both studies produced the same two stomatopods. Nine of the decapods taken by Tabb and Man- ning (Penaeus aztecus, Sicyonia dorsalis, Penaeopsis goodei, Synal- pheus pectiniger, Panopeus americanus, Sesarma curacaoense, Eury- tium limosum, Uca thayeri, and Uca rapax) were not observed dur- ing the present investigation. Most of these crustaceans probably could be found with a more thorough habitat search, especially offshore plankton tows and shoreline collecting. Holes of burrow- ing mud shrimp were evident on some shorelines and were prob- ably callianassid species. Callianassa islagrande Schmitt and C. jamaicence louisianensis are found farther north along the west coast of Florida (Wass, 1955) and C. stimpsoni has been reported from the Dry Tortugas (Pearse, 1934c). 13] Crustaceans of the Everglades ROUSE: call O01 OST OL OV CG O'€ O'S OV Oe CG GE OG OG OL Oe OL S17 0G GG ge Pp NIN JUSLUIPOs OLULBIE) yeod OWOs YIM Yooy [zeut prey JUSIUIpas pue TTEYS Joys pur prey JUSUTIPEs OlURSIE) [Jeus pue [rey Joys pue prey Joys pue pny YOOL IOAO [IVI JUDUIPES pur prj YOOL IOAO JILIN yUSUIIpPEs PIV ]T JUOLUTPas [ABU “TTOYS JUSUUIPES [ABUL ‘T[OYS agyqqna jays pnut [wut AAvOT{ pnut pret yyos pn pny (af) waded odA} Wl0o}OgG (G'SE-L’'CL) S'FZ (L°SE-O'ST) S°SZ (STE-V'LT) $°S2 (O'IE-O'LT) 0°9Z (OMS) Sie (SO8-F LI) 6 FZ (ZOES-E'8L) T'Sz (O';0E-E LI) 9°SZ (9'0€-9'ST) T°SZ (T'SS=Gi9il ) sie (S'0E-G'ST) 6'FZ (GIE-S'91) 6S (GOE-T LT) B&G (VIE-T'8L) TZ (GTE-O'ST) SZ (SCE-O'SL) SPS (7'63-G'ST) SZ (S'0E-S'0L) S'FZ (SES LI) L'9Z ($'8Z-9'ST) FPS (G'O0S-S'9L) F'SZ (D) sanzyeroduta J, (€'FP-0'0 ) SS (PESO) (ZGP-S'ES) 06S (0'0S-0'9T) O'SE (€'8c-0°0 ) LIZ (V'SE-L'S ) VBS (996-00 ) F9T (O'6E-P 11) 0°23 (0'0S-6'1Z) ZOE ($'0S=0'6S)) 1 oS (G'¢S-G 16) 6 PP (SLS-S'91T) LSE (S'0S-1'S ) 0°82 (8'8E-0'ST) LTS (CG LE=6: 7G) Liss (S'PP-8'6S) BEE (O'SP-6'8S) L'PE (O'ES-TTE) BSE (0'99-S'93) 6'LF (0'8S-1'8Z) F8E (7'3S-6'8 ) SSE (add) Ajturpes SUOT}E}S JY} JO SONSIIOJORILYO [RoIsAYg T AIaV.L sdeiy, sdvyy 9 Ss}ON SJON SJON qeiy quip qrig qui quip qrip qrig qrig qrip [Mell [Mery [Mery ABpoIp XY [AVIA], [MeL [MeL [MPL [Merl poe HADNT NHOrOaS ANOH MOF OBAaASH ee ee nN on | QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 132 (AMA) doyurs ‘(g¢) toutuins “( XY) Iva |e o}eorpuUr SIsoyjUoied UL sIoyo'T, ee JOATNO opvuruvul [PUG (AV) 9UON puog Avg }00D «TG JOATI UTVUL FO Ysivut Assvi (S$) WomMiopprig “(AV) sseis Ysivy] IAT YMON ‘0Z apy AAvoy ArloA (AV) ouoN IOAN YIVYS ‘6T [euro opeutuvUt osivyT ‘op AAvoy{ (S) Disspjoyy, SUVopy jeuey poomuoyng ‘ST op WsyS ‘epylns uosoipAy{ (M) viddmy osieds ‘(S) DiunpoDuy “ovs|Vy TOA SUBUISOT ‘LT oph iss ‘epyl[ns uosoipAy{ (XV) 9U0ON IOANT suvugsoyT ‘OT oph ON ‘oepy[ns uesorpAy su0.j5 (XV) oUuoN IOAN SURUTISO'T ‘CT poo [epy AAvoypy (AV) euou ysowly TOA SULUQSOT “PT yoo [epy suwios (M) DWvYyD “(S) riddny Avg }O0Or) ‘ET yoyo [epy swos (M.) Duayqunjdig, “(AA “S) piddny Avg 100) “GI Iva ][v DIssp]DY, JT, PeId (M) viddny “‘piayjzunjdig, “(S) Issp]vYy.T, Avq epuo,y ‘TT qoywM Avq usdO (M) visspjpy.T, PAT, osaedg “(G) DIssDjDY,T, Peed Aeq epiuoyy ‘OT opyns ussorpAy 8u0.ng . (MM) niddny “(AA ‘S) Diayqunjdiq Avg vpHo,y{ 6 yuvpunqe sosuods (S) ovs[e JuRpunqy vyYod oan weyywyD 8 soyoywo asuods o1pesz0ods (S) ovs[V vod TANT suvuygsoyT “yp uouuTOD sasuods (S) ovsye osaeds ryod WANT peroig “9 uoulOD sosuods pur suvTUOS.104) (XV) UoOHVIeS0A prop Jo spotsod orpe.sodg vyYPd WANT yweYyS °C sosuods Moa, ‘opy ATIeCd (S) Dwopowhy “(KY ) visspjpy, | yaepunqy yey Aoy Avunpy ‘Pf Ayuypes Ysty{T ‘epy Ajrep ON — (M) Diayjqunjdig “(S) 9es,y “(AV ) URpunqy Avg epMo,y “¢ uoututos sasuodg ‘apy ATIep ON (S) ovspe poy ‘(AY ) visspppy,,, ossvdg AVG Vpuop,y °S yount toyVMysorf AAVOT] (S$) ovs[v poy ‘(AV) visspppy,y, os.redg Aeg epuo,y ‘T SYIVULOY (UO L950 A SUOT}L}S sUO}v}s 94} JO sUOWOUNSIP 9AQvALdtUOD pue UOTNY}090/\ G6 WIAVL RousE: Crustaceans of the Everglades 133 Spaeroma destructor is the only species known to have vanished from the area in which it was common in the winter of 1957-58. The 11 species found by Tabb and Manning (1961) but not col- lected during this study, are included in the checklist, with the environmental data taken in that study. The references given with each species include a diagnostic description or some other pertinent information. The stations are described in Tables 1 and 2. Station numbers in italics are the locations where more than 100 individuals were collected. Com- ments on abundance are given in parenthesis after the station num- bers as follows: rare, less than 10 specimens collected; uncommon, from 10 to 25 specimens. The salinity and temperature figures des- ignate the upper and lower limit of the observed range. Figures and months in parentheses indicate the range and time of year of the most prevalent occurrence; e.g. salinity range 23 (33-39) 53 ppt, Ovigerous all year (winter). Order Isopopa Family Anthuridae Cyathura polita (Stimpson). Miller and Burbanck, 1961; Menzies and Frankenberg, 1966: 35. Stations 16, 17 (uncommon). Salinity 20-36 ppt. Temperature 24-28C. Although C. polita was not common at regular collecting stations, it was taken in numbers on the intertidal mud banks just east of Flamingo about 15-20 yards from the shore line (Stromberg, personal com- munication ). Family Cirolanidae Cirolana parva Hansen. Richardson, 1905: 111; Menzies and Franken- berg, 1966: 51; Miller, 1968: 15. Stations 1, 2, 5, 6, 8. Salinity 9-52 ppt. Temperature 18-34C. Family Exocorallanidae Exocorallana tricornis (Hansen). Richardson, 1905: 139. Stations 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8. Salinity 23-25 ppt. Temperature 16-30C. The males of this isopod have three prominent tubercles on the dorsal surface of the head. About one fourth of those caught were males. Exocorallana sexticornis (Richardson). Richardson, 1905: 143. Two specimens were collected in eastern Florida Bay. Family Aegidae Rocinela signata Schioedte and Meinert. Richardson, 1905: 209. Stations 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 18 (uncommon). Salinity 31-58 ppt. Temperature 18-29C. Family Cymothoidae Aegathoa oculata (Say). Richardson, 1905: 217. Stations 2, 4, 6, 7, 8. 20 (uncommon). Salinity 24-50 ppt. Temperature 18-32C. Nerocila acuminata Schioedte and Meinert. Richardson, 1905: 220. One specimen was found in a brackish water pond near Coot Bay. Cymothoa excisa Perty. Richardson, 1905: 248; Menzies and Franken- 134 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES berg, 1966; 30. Stations 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Salinity 15-53 ppt. Temperature 18(20-26)32C. Occurred as a parasite in the mouth of the pigfish, Ortho- pristis chrysopterus, with infestation up to 90 per cent in December and less than five per cent during the summer months. Cymothoa caraibica Bovallius. Richardson, 1905: 252. Salinity 35 ppt. Tabb and Manning (1961) recorded this species near Sandy Key off Cape Sable, but it was not collected during the present study. Lironeca ovalis (Say). Richardson, 1905: 263. Stations 7, 21 (rare). Salinity 30-33 ppt. Temperature 24-31C. The spelling given by Monod (1931) was used in place of the apparent mis-spelling (i.e., Livoneca) used by many authors. Family Sphaeromidae Cassidinidea lunifrons (Richardson). Richardson, 1905: 273, ix. Station 20. Salinity 9 ppt. Hansen (1905) produced a paper on Sphaeromidae with several generic names taking preference over those given by Richardson (i.e., Cassidisca = Cassidinidea ). Sphaeroma destructor Richardson. Richardson, 1905: 282; Menzies and Frankenberg, 1966: 47. Salinity 7(25-39)41 ppt. Tabb and Manning (1961) noted this isopod as being very abundant during the fall and winter of 1957 and 1958 in the Coot Bay area, but as rare from 1958 to 1961. None were collected during the present study. : Cymodoce faxoni (Richardson). Menzies and Miller, 1955. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19. Salinity 9(45-58)61 ppt. Temperature 16-32C. This isopod is especially abundant in eastern Florida Bay, but seems to be replaced by Paracerceis caudata along the western edge of Florida Bay. It was not observed by Tabb and Manning (1961). Approximately 25 per cent of the specimens collected were males. Paracerceis caudata (Say). Richardson, 1905: 314; Menzies and Franken- berg, 1966: 46-47; Miller, 1968: 13. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4 5, 6, 7, 8. Salinity 15(32-42) 53 ppt. Temperature 12-32C. The second most abundant species collected. A total of 11,258 specimens were taken at the 8 stations listed above; 10,458 of these came from station 4 (Murray Key) in western Florida Bay. Males constituted 18 per cent of the number taken at station 4 and 22 per cent of those collected at station 8 (Chatham River delta). As with Cas- sidinidea above, Hansen’s name preempts Cilicaea Richardson. Family Idotheidae Edotea montosa (Stimpson). Richardson, 1905: 397; Menzies and Frank- enberg, 1966: 22. Station 19. Found in bottom tows with detritus. Cleantis planicauda Benedict. Richardson, 1905: 404; Menzies and Frankenberg, 1966: 23. Stations 1, 2, 4, 7, 8. Salinity 9-58 ppt. Temperature 12-32C. Erichsonella floridana Benedict. Richardson, 1905: 403. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19. Salinity 9(31-52)61 ppt. Temperatures 16-32C. The identification of this species is tentative since a series of specimens ranging from the descriptions of E. attenuata through E. filiformis to E. floridana were taken from a single sample collected at station 18 (Buttonwood Canal). Some Rouse: Crustaceans of the Everglades 135 specimens fit none of the descriptions given by Richardson, being longer than E. attenuata, but having no ornamentation. Family Bopyridae Metaphrixus carolii Nierstrasz and Brender 4 Brandis. Nierstrasz and Brender 4 Brandis, 1931: 206. Abdominal parasite on the two species of Thor. Probopyrus alphei Richardson. Richardson, 1905: 559. One specimen found on Alpheus sp. Probopyrus latreuticola (Gissler). Richardson, 1905: 560. One specimen was found on Thor sp. Bopyrina abbreviata Richardson. Richardson, 1905: 563. This parasite has been found in this study only on Hippolyte pleuracantha. Richardson (1905) stated that B. abbreviata was found only on H. zostericola which has been confused in the literature with H. pleuracantha (Williams, 1965). Bopyrina urocaridis Richardson. Richardson, 1905: 565. The host for this parasite was the small shrimp, Periclimenes longicaudatus. Family Ligidae Ligia baudiniana (H. Milne-Edwards). Richardson, 1905: 678; Van Name, 1936: 58. Samples from Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay at Flamingo were examined by Dr. George Schultz (personal communication) of Duke University Marine Laboratory. He commented as follows: “Apparently some- where south of Biscayne Bay there is a transition zone between Ligia exotica, which is found north to at least Beaufort, North Carolina, and Ligia baudiniana which is found south to at least Panama”. Ligia exotica (Roux). Richardson, 1905: 676; Van Name, 1936: 48. Of the populations observed along northern Florida Bay, L. baudiniana was established on the shore line in areas having salinity of 35 ppt or higher while L. exotica was found on into the brackish water habitat of the marsh and inner- bay shores. Order STOMATOPODA Family Squillidae Squilla prasinolineata Dana. Manning, 1959; 1963. Stations 4, 5, 7 (rare). Salinity 31-37 ppt. Temperature 22-24C. Squilla empusa Say. Manning, 1959; 1963. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19. Salinity 24-35 ppt. Temperature 22-30C. Order DECAPODA Family Penaeidae Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad. Voss, 1955; Williams, 1965: 21. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19, 20, 21. Salinity 0(28-50)66 ppt. Temperature 11-34C. The pink shrimp are found during all months of the year. Carapace lengths ranged from 3 to 41 mm; most specimens were juveniles. Penaeus aztecus Ives. Voss, 1955; Holthuis, 1959: 63; Williams, 1965: 24. Tabb and Manning (1961) reported this species as not abundant, and it was not taken during the present study. Penaeopsis goodei (Smith). Verrill, 1922: 44; Voss, 1955; Williams, 1965: 29. Plankton samples taken in the Gulf of Mexico yielded this small shrimp (Tabb and Manning, 1961), but it was not found in the present study. 136 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Trachypeneus constrictus (Stimpson). Verrill, 1922: 45; Voss, 1955; Wil- liams, 1965: 31. Stations 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; 18, 19. Salimity 15@S=37)4onppt. Temperature 16-30C. Adults were collected in shrimp sampling nets at Shark River (station 19) and Buttonwood Canal (station 18) in July and August. Larvae (Pearson, 1939) were found during the entire year in Shark River samples. Trachypeneus similis (Smith). Voss, 1955. Station 5 (rare). Sicyonia dorsalis Kingsley. Verrill, 1922: 49. Not taken during this study, but found by Tabb and Manning (1961). Sicyonia laevigata Stimpson. Williams, 1965: 33. Station 7 (rare). Salin- ity 34 ppt. Temperature 20C. Sicyonia typica (Boeck). Voss, 1955; Williams, 1965: 36. Stations 4, 5, 7, 19. Salinity 31-34 ppt. Temperature 16-24C. Most abundant in shrimp nets fishing the Shark River (station 19) during the summer and fall. They were collected only on the ebbing tides. Sicyonia brevirostris Stimpson. Williams, 1965: 35. Station 8 (rare). Salinity 24 ppt. Temperature 24C. Although the adults were rarely taken, the larvae and juveniles (Cook and Murphy, 1965) were collected in a plankton tow just inside the mouth of Chatham River in August of 1965. Family Sergestidae Lucifer faxoni Borradaile. Verrill, 1922: 53; Williams, 1965: 40. Stations 18, 19. Family Pasiphaeidae Leptochela serratorbita Bate. Williams, 1965: 41. Station 5 (rare). Family Palaemonidae Leander paulensis Ortmann. Manning, 1961. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19. Ovigerous during the spring and summer. Salinity 24(33-36)53 ppt. Temperature 12-34C. After being synonymized with Leander tenuicornis (Say) by Holthuis (1952), Leander paulensis was redescribed by Manning (1961). Leander tenuicornis (Say). Holthuis, 1952: 155; Williams, 1965: 55. Usually observed only on drifting Sargassum weed offshore while L. paulensis was most abundant from red algae, Gracillaria sp., in estuaries. Palaemon floridanus Chace. Holthuis, 1952: 197. Stations 3, 4, 7. Ovigerous in the spring. Salinity 31(32-40)52 ppt. Temperature 12-32C. This shrimp, reported only from the west coast of Florida, can be recognized by the long up-swept rostrum with 7 to 9 dorsal rostral teeth and 2 to 3 sub-apical teeth. The ventral edge of the rostrum bears from 5 to 9 teeth. Palaemonetes paludosus Gibbes. Holthuis, 1952: 207. Station 20. Ovig- erous in the fall and winter (October). Salinity 0-8 ppt. Temperature 18-32C. When this species was abundant (October-December), many of the individuals carried an unidentified branchial parasite. Larval development has been re- ported by Dobkin (1963). Palaemonetes intermedius Holthuis. Holthuis, 1952: 241; Williams, 1965: 58. Stations 3, 4, 7, 8, 20, 21. Ovigerous during September (January-Febru- ary) April. Salinity 0(10-11) (43-64)66 ppt. Temperature 15-34C. Of the three species of Palaemonetes found during these studies, P. intermedius was Rouse: Crustaceans of the Everglades NST found in the highest salinities. In the North River (station 20), as salinities decreased, P. intermedius stayed in the 10-30 ppt range, overlapping P. pugio which in turn overlapped P. paludosus. Rarely were all three taken at a station on the same trip. The optimal salinity of P. intermedius could not be deter- mined and may be related to changes in the habitat during rainy and dry sea- sons. Those from station 3 (Florida Bay) were found most frequently in the 43-64 ppt range during drought, while those from station 20 (North River) were -more often taken in the 10-11 ppt range following drought-breaking rains. Palaemonetes pugio Holthuis. Holthuis, 1952: 244; Williams, 1965: 59. Stations 20, 21. Ovigerous all year. Salinity 0(10-15)43 ppt. Temperature 15-32C. Not taken as commonly as the other two species of Palaemonetes. It was collected most frequently in the salinities intermediate between those oc- cupied by P. paludosus and P. intermedius. Broad (1957) has reported rearing P. pugio in the laboratory. Periclimenes longicaudatus (Stimpson). Holthuis, 1951: 26; Williams, 1965: 42. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19. Ovigerous females were taken from September (February-March) April, but were uncommon even during these months. Salinity 15(24-43)55 ppt. Temperature 12(16-28)34C. Except for Tozeuma carolinense, this species was the most common caridean taken. Periclimenes magnus Holthuis. Holthuis, 1951: 52. Salinity 38 ppt. Temperature 28C. One specimen of this extremely rare species was found at station 4 (Murray Key) in April 1965. It was deposited in the United States National Museum. The only other specimen known from the literature was collected in the Gulf of Mexico off Aransas, Texas (Holthuis, 1951). Periclimenes americanus (Kingsley). Holthuis, 1951: 60; Williams, 1965: 43. Stations 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year (March-April). Salinity 15(29-40)61 ppt. Temperature 12-34C. Body smaller and broader than P. longicaudatus. Family Alpheidae Alpheus sp. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19. One ovigerous female was taken in September. Salinity 24-53 ppt. Temperature 12-32C. This is the species that has been called Alpheus heterochaelis Say in south Florida. Upon detailed examination by several workers, it is believed to be a separate species from those found in North Carolina. Larvae of specimens taken from widely separated areas (Key West, Bahamas, and North Carolina) show dis- tinctly different development (Brooks and Herrick, 1892; Verrill, 1922; Dobkin, personal communication). A. armillatus was found in this study to be restricted to the Gulf stations while Alpheus sp. was about equally distributed over the eight main trawl stations. Alpheus armillatus H. Milne-Edwards. Verrill, 1922: 76; Williams, 1965: 67. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). Ovigerous females were found in most months of the year. Salinity 23-45 ppt. Temperature 20-30C. A. armillatus is readily distinguished from Alpheus sp. by the flat triangular base of the rostrum. Armstrong (1949) described a closely related species, A. viridari, from Dominican Republic that has also been found on the Dry Tortugas grass banks. Small chelae ratios (length/height) of these three related species are: A. armil- 138 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES latus, 3.6 (range: 3.0-4.4); Alpheus sp., 4.4 (range 3.9-5.2); and A. viridari, 5.3 (range 5.0-6.2). Alpheus normanni Kingsley. Williams, 1965: 65. Stations 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in the winter months. Salinity 24-43 ppt. Temperature 16-30C. This small snapping shrimp has a ridge ending in a tooth on the outer margin of the large chela. In formalin preserved specimens a reticulated red color pattern with several black dots on the abdomen distinguishes A. normanni from young Alpheus sp. and A. armillatus. In the literature A. normanni has been called Alpheus packardii Kingsley. Synalpheus apioceros Coutiere. Coutiere, 1909: 27. Station 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in the winter months (rare). Salinity 23-45 ppt. Temperature 20-34C. S. apioceros and S. townsendi differ very little in appearance. The basic diagnostic characteristic is that the basicerite of S. apioceros is armed with a superior spine nearly equal to the frontal teeth while the spine of S. townsendi is at most a blunt angle. Synalpheus townsendi Coutiere. Coutiere, 1909: 32; Williams, 1965: 72. Stations 5, 7, 8 (rare). Ovigerous in December (one specimen). Salinity 30-37 ppt. Temperature 20-26C. Coutiere named an “oxyceros” form, S. townsendi productus, which many of our specimens resemble. They are differentiated only by an elongation of the rostrum, frontal teeth, and lateral spine of the scapho- cerite. Specimens were often taken in the sponge Ircinia strobilina as well as free-living. Synalpheus hemphilli Coutiere. Coutiere, 1909: 38: Verrill, 1922: 94. Stations 5, 8 (rare). Ovigerous in December-January (rare). Salinity 33-35 ppt. Temperature 24-26C. The remainer of the alpheids were found associated with sponges, and with the exception of S. herricki generally not more than one or two per sponge. Adult S. hemphilli are about half again larger than the two preceding species. They were the only species of Coutiere’s Neomeris group collected, although S. fritzmulleri has been reported from Marco Island. Synalpheus minus (Say). Coutiere, 1909: 43; Williams, 1965: 70. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in February-March (rare). Salinity 31-37 ppt. Temper- ature 24-26C. The distal part of the palm and finger are a dark red color. Synalpheus brevicarpus (Herrick). Coutiere, 1909: 50; Verrill, 1922: 110. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). Ovigerous females were found during most months of the year. Salinity 31-40 ppt. Temperature 24-34C. Adults average more than twice as large as S. minus. Synalpheus herricki Coutiere. Coutiere, 1909: 74. Stations 5, 6, 6. Ovigerous in the winter (February). Salinity 32-35 ppt. Temperature 22-24C. Identifying the Synalpheus species is difficult, particularly in the Laevimanus group. Some closely related species in this group from South Florida are S. brooksi, S. tanneri, S. herricki, and S. pectiniger. S brooksi was noted as being abundant in loggerhead sponges in Biscayne Bay (Dobkin, 1965), around the Dry Tortugas (Pearse, 1934a), and in the same habitat at Bimini (Pearse, 1950). Wass (1955) found S. pectiniger in a yellow sponge in the Alligator Harbor area. During the present study S. herricki was taken in colonies from logger- head sponges. Most of the specimens were of Coutiere’s typical form, but a few approached the S. herricki dimidiatus variety. RousE: Crustaceans of the Everglades 139 Synalpheus pectiniger Coutiere. Coutiere, 1909: 78. Salinity 33 ppt. One specimen was collected by Tabb and Manning (1961), but it was not taken in the present investigation. Family Ogyrididae Ogyrides yaquiensis Armstrong. Armstrong, 1949. Stations 5, 7, 14, 18, 19. Ovigerous in the winter (rare). Salinity 14-35 ppt. Temperature 20-24C. This peculiar little shrimp was commonly intercepted in plankton tows from Shark River (station 19) and Buttonwood Canal (station 18). Ratios of the segments of the legs compare closely with Armstrong’s type: subdivided carpus of second pair—proximal 1.00, second 0.29, third 0.38, and the chela 0.76; five distal segments of the third leg—ischium 1.00, merus 0.76, carpus 0.71, propodus 0.47, dactylus 0.32. The number of spiniform teeth on the rostral carina were found to be a direct function of size and ranged from 4 ot 13 teeth. Family Hippolytidae Hippolyte pleuracantha (Stimpson). Williams, 1965: 80. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year (spring). Salinity 9(32-50)61 ppt. Temperature 12(26-32)34C. Holthuis (in Williams, 1965) has pointed out the differences be- tween H. pleuracantha and H. zostericola (Smith) which have been confused in the literature. Approximately three fourths of those collected were ovigerous females. Thor sp. (I). Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Ovigerous all year. Salinity 9(38- 52)61 ppt. Temperature 12-32C. At the present time, this species is dis- tinguished from Thor sp. (II) only by the size of the eggs. In formalin-pre- served specimens the average size of Thor sp. (I) eggs was 1.01 mm (range 0.89-1.09) and Thor sp. (II) 0.60 (range 0.56-0.66). During this study no at- tempt was made to differentiate between the adult nonovigerous specimens. One of these species appears to be Thor floridanus Kingsley (Verrill, 1922: 135; Williams, 1965: 76), but Dr. Sheidon Dobkin of Florida Atlantic University has examined Kingsley’s type and found no ovigerous females, thus making a separa- tion using this distinction impossible. Thor sp. (I) was common in the higher salinity stations of Florida Bay while Thor sp. (II) was found in lesser numbers at the Gulf of Mexico stations. There was an overlapping at Murray Key (sta- tion 4) with about one eighth as many Thor sp. (II) taken as Thor sp. (I). Thor sp. (II). Stations 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year. Salinity 15(33-40)61 ppt. Temperature 12-34C. Latreutes fucorum (Fabricius). Verrill, 1922: 131; Williams, 1965: 78. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous from November to March. Salinity 24(32- 36)53 ppt. Temperature 12-32C. Found in the Sargassum complex usually, but taken in this study also on Thalassia beds. Latreutes parvulus (Stimpson). Holthuis, 1947: 59; Williams, 1965: 79. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year (winter). Salinity 15(23-39)50 ppt. Temperature 16-34C. This small Sargassum shrimp has been referred to in the literature as Rhynchocyclus parvulus Stimpson, Concordia gibberosus Kingsley, (Hay and Shore, 1918), and Latreutes gibberosus (Kingsley), (Schmitt, 1935) until the correct name was applied by Holthuis (1947). Ovigerous females made up 60 per cent of the total caught at station 8 (Chatham River). 140 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tozeuma carolinense Kingsley. Verrill, 1922: 127; Williams, 1965: 83. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19, 21. Ovigerous all year. Salinity 23(33- 39)53 ppt. Temperature 11(16-32)34C. The most common crustacean col- lected (28,516 total; 27,289 from station 4). Of those collected at station 4, 46 per cent were ovigerous. The generic name for this species was formerly Angasia (Holthuis, 1947). Hippolysmata wurdemanni (Gibbes). Williams, 1965: 84. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in the winter (February). Salinity 23-45 ppt. Temperature 20-34C. A prominent hair-spine between each of the dorsal rostral teeth helps to identify this beautiful small shrimp. Family Processidae Processa sp. Holthuis, 1959: 120; Williams, 1965: 86. Stations 5, 7, 8 (uncommon). Salinity 23-39 ppt. Temperature 19-29C. Two species were col- lected. The first appears in many respects to be the same as Gurneys’s (1936) P. bermudensis (Rankin). It has no antennal spine. The carpus of the right leg has 19-28 segments and the merus has 9-13; left leg carpus 14, merus 4. Gurney stated that his specimens had 18 distinct segments on the carpus of the right leg and 17 on the left, but his figure indicates 25 and 18 which agrees more closely with our specimens. The second species, represented by only one ovigerous female, has an antennal spine and much smaller second legs (right carpus 9 segments, merus 5; left carpus 10, merus 4). The ventro-distal angle of the sixth somite ends in a distinct tooth. The spination of the legs varies in both species. Family Astacidae Procambarus alleni Faxon. Hobbs, 1942. Station 20, 21. Common on the flooded freshwater glades during the rainy season. Family Palinuridae Panulirus argus (Latreille). Williams, 1965: 91. Stations 1, 4 (rare). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 36-42 ppt. Temperature 22-24C. Family Scyllaridae Scyllarus americanus (Smith). Williams, 1965: 96. Stations 5, 7 (rare). Salinity 24-32 ppt. Temperature 23-24C. Family Callianassidae Upogebia affinis (Say). Schmitt, 1935: 196; Williams, 1965: 103. Stations 18, 19. Ovigerous females were taken in most months of the year. Young of this species were common during the winter months on the flood tide at Shark River (station 19). Family Porcellanidae Euceramus praelongus Stimpson. Haig, 1956: 7; Williams, 1965: 109. Stations 5, 6 (uncommon). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 29-39 ppt. Temperature 16-29C. Rearing of the larvae has been reported by Morris (1968). Petrolisthes armatus Gibbes. Haig, 1956: 19. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year (autumn). Salinity 15(29-37)47 ppt. Temperature 16-34C. P. armatus is a smaller crab than P. galathinus and has a more varied, drab coloration. Rouse: Crustaceans of the Everglades 141 Petrolisthes galathinus (Bosc). Haig, 1956: 22; Williams, 1965: 107. Sta- tions 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in October (rare). Salinity 29(80-35)36 ppt. Tem- perature 20-30C. Generally taken when sponges (principally Haliclona rubens) are washed in from offshore. Diagnostic characteristics of P. galathinus are four teeth or lobes on the carpus while that of P. armatus is armed with three spine-tipped teeth. P. galathinus was observed more commonly in deeper water than at our collecting stations. Polyonyx gibbesi Haig. Haig, 1956: 28; Williams, 1965: 113. Station 6 (rare). No ovigerous females taken. Four free-living individuals were found, all on the Broad River delta (station 6) in March 1965. One other specimen was taken in Chaetopterus variopedatus in February 1965. This species has been called P. macrocheles (Gibbes) in the literature. Early larval stages have been reared in the laboratory by Gore (1968). Porcellana sayana (Leach). Haig, 1956: 31; Williams, 1965: 110. Station 5 (rare). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 33 ppt. Temperature 24C. Megalobrachium soriatum (Say). Haig, 1956: 35; Williams, 1965: 112. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year. Salinity 24-45 ppt. Temperature 19- 30C. Haig (1960) discusses the Porcellanopsis and Megalobrachium electing to combine all species of these two genera under Megalobrachium. Family Diogenidae Petrochirus diogenes (Linnaeus). Holthuis, 1959: 151; Williams, 1965: 122. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 31-37 ppt. Temperature 20-32C. The largest hermit crab taken from this area. In the literature this species has been called Petrochirus bahamensis (Herbst), (Provenzano, 1959; Wass, 1955). Paguristes hummi Wass. Wass, 1955: 148; Provenzano, 1959: 381. Sta- tions 4, 5, 6. Ovigerous in October and November. Salinity 28(29-31)43 ppt. Temperature 15(19)30. This interesting hermit crab, reported south of Marco Island for the first time, was taken as far south as Murray Key (station 4). It is easily recognized by the brilliant blue, yellow, and black patch on the inner surface of the merus of the cheliped. This species has also been reported from Galveston, Texas (Leary, 1961), and is known from the east coast of Florida (Provenzano, personal communication). Paguristes torgugae Schmitt. Holthuis, 1959: 131; Provenzano, 1959: 388; Williams, 1965: 119. Stations 1, 2, 5, 6. Ovigerous in May (rare). Salinity 9-50. Temperature 15-32C. A black band across the eyestalks and antennules facilitates identification. Family Paguridae Pagurus longicarpus Say. Provenzano, 1959: 394; Williams, 1965: 125. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 15-34 ppt. Temperature 20-30C. The distribution of this pagurid, like several others, seems to be disjunct at the Florida peninsula with specimens from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico distinguishable. All were found in Polinices shells. Pagurus impressus (Benedict). Provenzano, 1959: 399; Williams, 1965: 129. Stations 5, 6 (rare). Pagurus pollicaris Say. Provenzano, 1959: 401; Williams, 1965: 128. 142 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Stations 5, 6, 7, 8. No ovigerous females taken. Provenzano (1959) suggests that the Gulf of Mexico population is subspecifically distinct. Pagurus bonairensis Schmitt. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19. Oviger- ous in December-February. Salinity 9(29-52)66 ppt. Temperature 12(28- 30)34C. The following is a personal communication from Dr Anthony Pro- venzano of the University of Miami Institute of Marine Sciences: This species was erroneously identified by Provensano (1959) as Pagurus annulipes Stimpson. P. annulipes is a more northern form, distributed from Woods Hole south along the Atlantic coast to at least northern Florida and to depths of some meters, and along the Gulf of Mexico shores from Texas to at least Cedar Key on the northwest coast of Florida. P. annulipes can be distinguished from P. bona- irensis by its much shorter antennae bearing setae at least 4-5 segments long: setae on the antenna of P. bonairensis are only 1-2 segments long. P. bona- irensis is distributed from the northern Gulf of Mexico, where it overlaps the range of P. annulipes, south through the Caribbean region. Its southern most limit is not known with certainty. It is very likely that all records of “P. an- nulipes” from shallow tropical waters of the Western Atlantic are based on specimens of P. bonairensis, although there is a possibility that there exists still another Pagurus with which P. bonairensis may be confused. Certainly P. annulipes Stimpson does not extend into warm waters south of Florida. The type of P. annulipes was apparently lost, but recently two specimens identified as this species by Stimpson and donated to the British Museum by the Smith- sonian Institution have been discovered. They are not the species illustrated by Provenzano, (1959) from south Florida waters. P. bonairensis is about the same size as Paguristes hummi, but P. hummi is associated with shell beds and Pagurus bonairensis with grass flats. Family Dromiidae Hypoconcha arcuata Stimpson. Rathbun, 1937: 47; Williams, 1965: 144. Station 5 (uncommon). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 29-43 ppt. Tem- perature 19-30C. This peculiar crab attaches to the concave side of a lamelli- branch mollusc shell. In this study they were only found occupying Trachy- cardium muricatum and T. egmontianum valves. Family Leucosiidae Ebalia cariosa (Stimpson). Rathbun, 1937: 125; Williams, 1965: 147. Sta- tions 5, 6, 7. No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 29-43 ppt. Temperature 16-30C. Common on the shell rubble of Shark River (station 5). Persephona aquilonaris Rathbun. Williams, 1965: 150. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). Ovigerous in February (rare). Salinity 24-37 ppt. Temperature 16-27C. Guinot-Dumortier (1959) separates P. aquilonaris and P. punctata (Linnaeus) recognized as a subspecies by Rathbun (1937: 154). Family Calappidae Calappa flammea (Herbst). Rathbun, 1937: 198; Holthuis, 1958; Williams, 1965: 152. Stations 5, 6, 7 (rare). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 34-37 ppt. Temperature 16-28C. Hepatus epheliticus (Linnaeus). Rathbun, 1937: 238; Williams, 1965: 158. Stations 7, 8 (rare). One ovigerous specimen taken in January. Salinity 15-34 RousE: Crustaceans of the Everglades 143 ppt. Temperature 20-28C. Larval development has been reported by Costlow and Bookhout (1962). Family Portunidae Portunus sayi (Gibbes). Rathbun, 1930: 37; Williams, 1965: 163. In the summer months of 1965, Sargassum plants were flourishing in Whitewater Bay during a period when salinities ranged between 30 and 40 ppt. This seaweed carried much of the same fauna as in open ocean waters including P. sayi. Portunus gibbesii (Stimpson). Rathbun, 1930: 49; Williams, 1965: 164. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8, 19. No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 15-39 ppt. Temperature 16-32C. The most often taken portunid in the area. Identifica- tion is facilitated by a naked irridescent spot near each posterolateral border. These crabs migrate in large numbers during the summer months. In June, 1966, through one ebbing nocturnal tide cycle, 1366 specimens (684 males, 682 females) were caught in wing nets at station 19 (Shark River). Mode size was: males, 28 mm and females, 26 mm carapace breadth (range 11 to 46). Portunus spinimanus Latreille. Rathbun, 1930: 62; Williams, 1965: 165. Station 19 (uncommon). No ovigerous females taken. Sizes ranged from 14 to 45 mm carapace breadth. Portunus depressifrons (Stimpson). Rathbun, 1930: 84; Williams, 1965: 166. Stations 8, 19 (rare). No ovigerous females taken. Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Rathbun, 1930: 99; Williams, 1965: 198. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 18, 19, 20, 21. Ovigerous females mixed through- out the year (uncommon). Salinity 0-55 ppt. Temperature 16-31C. This portunid is fairly evenly distributed in Park estuaries. Sizes ranged from 30 to 147 mm in the areas with generally marine salinities and up to 209 mm in the upper reaches of rivers dominated by freshwater. Callinectes ornatus Ordway. Rathbun, 1930: 114; Williams, 1965: 172. Stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 18, 19, 21. No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 24-50 ppt. Temperature 18-30C. Following Williams (1966), these crabs closely parallel the characters given for C. ornatus. Only a rare individual was taken as far inland as Coot Bay Pond. Family Xanthidae Panopeus herbstii H. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun, 1930: 335; Williams, 1965: 196. Stations 1, 5, 7 (uncommon). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 32- 35 ppt. Temperature 22-26C. Found occasionally on living oyster beds. Lab- oratory rearing of P. herbstii has been reported by Costlow and Bookhout (1961a). Panopeus occidentalis Saussure. Rathbun, 1930: 348; Williams, 1965: 198. Stations 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 20. Ovigerous in the winter months (uncommon). Salinity 15-45 ppt. Temperature 16-32C. Panopeus americanus Saussure. Rathbun, 1930: 357. Salinity 12-25 ppt. Listed by Tabb and Manning (1961), but not observed in this study. Neopanope texana texana (Stimpson). Rathbun, 1930: 367; Williams, 1965: 190. Stations 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in December-February (un- common). Salinity 28-52 ppt. Temperature 16-30C. Rathbun notes the grada- tions of individuals ranging from N. texana texana to N. texana sayi along the east coast of Florida. This situation exists in the Park waters also. The confusion 144 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES extends to a lesser degree to N. packardii. The only reliable diagnostic feature is the basal tooth on the fixed finger which is always present in N. packardii and absent (or slightly swollen) in N. texana. The chela coloration varies, both in shading and spreading. Neopanope packardii (Kingsley). Rathbun, 1930: 380. Stations 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year (winter). Salinity 9(24-52)58 ppt. Temperature 16(20)32C. The most abundant xanthid found at the collecting stations. Most of the xanthids taken were small, either young or possibly stunted adults. Only a few individuals, even ovigerous females, reached the sizes given by Rathbun (1930). This was particularly true with N. packardii. The early life cycle stages have been reported by Costlow and Bookhout (1967). Hexapanopeus angustifrons (Benedict and Rathbun). Rathbun, 1930: 384; Williams, 1965: 188. Stations 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous females were mixed throughout the year (February-July). Salinity 9(29-39)53 ppt. Tem- perature 16(28)34C. Larval development has been worked on by Chamber- lain (1961) and Costlow and Bookhout (1966). Eurypanopeus depressus (Smith). Rathbun, 1930: 410; Williams, 1965: 195. Stations 1, 2. No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 31-52 ppt. Tem- perature 22-24C. Common on old shell beds inhabiting the gaping valves of dead oysters. E. depressus has been reared in the laboratory by Costlow and Bookhout (1961b). Eurytium limosum (Say). Rathbun, 1930: 423; Williams, 1965: 199. Gen- erally found in muddy marsh banks (Ryan, 1956) and they were not examined during this survey. Tabb and Manning (1961) reported them from the ~.. . marl and organic muds above the low tide line.” Rhithropanopeus harrisii (Gould). Rathbun, 1930: 456; Williams: 1965: 187. Stations 5, 6, 7, 14, 20. Salinity 2(8-20)40 ppt. Temperature 17-30C. Taken commonly in the rivers from decaying detritus. Menippe mercenaria (Say). Rathbun, 1930: 472; Williams, 1965. 183. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 15(27-35)45 ppt. Temperature 16-32C. Tabb and Manning (1961, 1962) found this species common in Florida Bay west of Snake Bight to Cape Sable. Only one specimen was collected that far south (station 4, Murray Key) in the present study; the remainder of them were taken at the open Gulf of Mexico stations with the largest number (195) collected at station 8 (Chatham River). The majority were juveniles ranging in size from 6.9 to 27.1 mm with an average carapace breadth of 10.9 mm. Pilmunus sayi Rathbun. Rathbun, 1930: 484; Williams, 1965: 177. Sta- tions 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in October and January (rare). Salinity 15-45 ppt. Temperature 16-34C. Three Pilumnus species were found associated with the sponge fauna of which P. sayi is the largest with females measuring up to 24 mm and males to 32 mm. Small P. sayi can be distinguished from P. dasypodus and P. lacteus by the dark brown spines of the chelae and dorsal spines on the hepatic region of the carapace. Chamberlain (1961) has reported rearing the larvae of P. sayi. Pilumnus dasypodus Kingsley. Rathbun, 1930: 493; Williams, 1965: 178. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous in December-May. Salinity 23-38 ppt. Tem- RousE: Crustaceans of the Everglades 145 perature 20-30C. This small species has brown spines on the chelae and no hair on the posterior one half of the carapace. Pilumnus lacteus Stimpson. Rathbun, 1930: 511; Williams, 1965: 180. Stations 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous all year. Salinity 15(23-38)45 ppt. Tem- perature 16-34C. The most common of the three pilumnids. This species ap- pears to be found with tunicates and bryozoans as well as sponges. Small black under-hairs cover the anterior one third of the carapace; no spines are present on the chelae. Family Goneplacidae Euryplax nitida Stimpson. Rathbun, 1918: 34; Williams, 1965: 202. Sta- tions 5, 7, 8 (uncommon). One ovigerous specimen found in January. Salinity 24-34 ppt. Temperature 16-26C. Eucratopsis crassimanus (Dana). Rathbun, 1918: 52. Stations 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). Ovigerous in January-February (rare). Salinity 34-37 ppt. Tem- perature 22-29C. Family Pinnotheridae Pinnotheres maculatus Say. Rathbun, 1918: 74; Williams, 1965: 206. Stations 6, 18 (rare). No ovigerous females taken. Pinnixa sayana Stimpson. Rathbun, 1918: 156; Williams, 1965: 212. Station 6 (rare). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 33 ppt. Temperature BG. Family Grapsidae Sesarma reticulatum (Say). Rathbun, 1918: 290; Williams, 1965: 221. No specific stations were included which would yield fiddler crabs. Therefore, only an occasional shoreline crab was collected, generally from around the mouth of Lostmans River. Sesarma curacaoense de Man. Rathbun, 1918: 293: Holthuis, 1959: 242. Taken by Tabb and Manning (1961) on mangroves in western Whitewater Bay, but not collected during the present study. Sesarma ricordi H. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun, 1918: 308; Holthuis, 1959: 246. Found on the brackish water mangrove river banks. Aratus pisonii (H. Milne-Edwards). Rathbun, 1918: 323; Holthuis, 1959: 24]. Generally this species was found along the shoreline in the mangrove complex throughout the Park, but in the spring months they were sporatically caught in the Shark River (station 19) plankton samples. Family Ocypodidae Uca rapax (Smith). Holthuis, 1959: 266. Not taken in the present study, but collected by Tabb and Manning (1961) burrowing in hard marl. Uca pugilator (Bosc). Rathbun, 1918: 400: Williams, 1965: 232. Uca pugilator was taken only on the mud beaches of the open Gulf of Mexico while U. speciosa was found in the same habitat on the hard mar] islands of Florida Bay and the upper river bays. Uca speciosa (Ives). Rathbun, 1918: 408. Uca thayeri Rathbun. Rathbun, 1918: 406; Holthuis, 1959: 275. Not collected during this study, but reported by Tabb and Manning (1961) from the black mangrove belt or rich, peaty soil. 146 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Family Majidae Metoporhaphis calcarata (Say). Rathbun, 1925: 21; Williams, 1965: 243. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 19. No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 15(23-33)45 ppt. Temperature 12-34C. The Majidae are found in abundance only at the open Gulf of Mexico stations. No spider crabs were taken east of station 4 (Murray Key) and were uncommon at Murray Key. Podochela riisei Stimpson. Rathbun, 1925: 33; Williams, 1965: 241. Sta- tions 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). No ovigerous females were taken. Salinity 20- 45 ppt. Temperature 20-30C. Pelia mutica (Gibbes). Rathbun, 1925: 278; Williams, 1965: 250. Sta- tions 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Ovigerous females were taken during most months of the year. Salinity 15(29-36)52 ppt. Temperature 16-32C. A small species, adult males ranged to 10.5 mm (carapace length to end of horns) with females to 6.7 mm. Libinia dubia H. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun, 1925: 313; Williams, 1965: 252. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. One ovigerous specimen was taken in June. Sa- linity 30-52 ppt. Temperature 12-32C. L. dubia and L. erinacea are not readily distinguishable. It has been suggested that a spine on the proximal dor- sal surface of the merus of L. dubia and absent in L. erinacea can be used as a diagnostic character. During this study specimens were found with no spine, ranging through a small tubercle to a large tubercle, a tooth, and a spine. The above physical data incorporates both species. Libinia erinacea (A. Milne-Edwards). Rathbun, 1925: 321. The larval development stages have been reported by Yang (1967). Pitho anisodon (von Martens). Rathbun, 1925: 368. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). One ovigerous female was taken in July. Salinity 30-38 ppt. Temperature 22-32C. Macrocoeloma camptocerum (Stimpson). Rathbun, 1925: 469; Williams, 1965: 264. Stations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (uncommon). No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 30-52 ppt. Temperature 20-30C. The encrusting animals on the dor- sal surface of the carapace often were as large a mass as the crab itself. Species of sponge included in this mass were Dysidea sp., Haliclona sp., and Lisso- dendoryx isodictyalis (Carter) as well as an unidentified ascidian. Microphrys bicornutus (Latreille). Rathbun, 1925: 489; Williams, 1965: 259. Station 5 (rare). Family Parthenopidae Parthenope serrata (H. Milne Edwards). Rathbun, 1925: 516; Williams, 1965: 267. Station 5 (rare). Salinity 29-39 ppt. Temperature 18-29C. Heterocrypta granulata (Gibbes). Rathbun, 1925: 555; Williams, 1965; 270. Stations 5, 8. No ovigerous females taken. Salinity 29-37 ppt. Tem- perature 16-30C. Commonly taken in the shell rubble at Shark River. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Drs. C. P. Idyll and Durbin Tabb of the Uni- versity of Miami Institute of Marine Seiences for valuable guidance Rouse: Crustaceans of the Everglades 147 and Terrance Thomas, Billy Drummond, and Neil Kenny who displayed exceptional perseverance as field trip leaders. Dr. An- thony J. Provenzano, Jr. also of the Institute helped with the identi- fication of the hermit crabs; Dr. Jarl-Ove Stromberg, Lund Univer- sity, Sweden, identified the Bopyridae and confirmed the determin- ations of many of the isopods; Dr. Sheldon Dobkin, Florida Atlantic University, examined some of the penaecids; and Dr. Raymond Manning, Dr. Thomas E. Bowman, and Mr. Henry B. Roberts, United States National Museum, were very kind in their assistance with various identification problems. I am especially grateful to Drs. Manning and Tabb for their critical reading of the manuscript. My thanks for their aid is also extended to Dr. L. B. Holthuis, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden; Dr. George Schultz, Duke University Marine Laboratory; Dr. Isabella Gordon, British Museum Natural History; and Mr. Donald Allen of the Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. LITERATURE CITED ARMSTRONG, JOHN C. 1949. New Caridea from the Dominican Republic. | Amer. Mus. 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Unpublished dissertation, University of Miami, Institute of Marine Sciences, pp. 1-459. Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124. Contribution No. 1131 from the Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Miami, Florida 33149. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(2) 1969 (1970) A Small Pleistocene Herpetofauna from Tamaulipas J. ALAN HoLMAN Recorps of Pleistocene amphibians and reptiles from Mexico are so few that a small late Pleistocene herpetofauna from a cave in extreme southern Tamaulipas is of considerable interest. This large cave, named Cueva de Abra, is in a limestone hill near the Pan American Highway, 10 kilometers north-northeast of the village of Antiguo Morelos, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Walter W. Dalquest col- lected living mammals from this cave in 1947 (Dalquest and Hall, 1947), and since then many collectors have visited the site. In May, 1966, a party from Midwestern University consisting of Walter W. Dalquest, Edward Roth, Robert Westmoreland, and Robert Coffman explored the cave for vertebrate fossils. In the process of exploring the cave the group found the remnants of a former travertine ledge, some parts of which contained large num- bers of the fossil bones of small vertebrates, mainly mammals, but with some birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Several slabs of this travertine of a total weight of about 300 pounds were brought back to Midwestern University where the slabs were treated with dilute acetic acid in order to remove the bones. The origin of the bones is attributed to the regurgitated pellets of barn owls (Tyto alba) that perched above the ledge. It is thought that in times past that carbonate-laden drops of water fell from the ceiling to form a drip-stone crust that incorporated the bones. Based on the mammalian fossils and on the stratigraphic condi- tions within the cave, Dalquest believes that the fossils represent a time in the very late Pleistocene. The fossil birds from Cueva de Abra are being studied by Pierce Brodkorb of the University of Florida and the mammalian remains have been detailed in an ar- ticle to be submitted by Dalquest and Roth for publication. I wish to thank Dr. Dalquest for the privilege of studying and reporting on the herpetological fossils. My part of the work was supported by National Science Foundation Grant GB-5988. All measurements are in millimeters. 154 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AMPHIBIA Rhinophrynus dorsalis Dumeril and Bibron Material. One left and one right humerus; one right ilium; one left and one right tibiofibula, Midwestern University Number (MU) 8086. Holman (1963) gives characters for the identification of the distinctive ilium of Rhinophrynus dorsalis. The humerus and the tibiofibulae of this species are also quite diagnostic, and they reflect the strong burrowing adaptations of this form. The fossils are identical to the living species, and the bones appear to be from a single individual. The genus Rhinophrynus has been reported only once previously as a fossil as the extinct species R. canadensis from the early Oligocene of the Cypress Hills formation of Saskatchewan, Canada (Holman, 1963). The species R. dorsalis occurs in southern Tamaulipas today. Syrrhophus cf. Syrrhophus campi Stejnger Material. Proximal part of a left ilium, MU 8087. This is the first record of this species as a fossil. Syrrhophus ct. S. marnocki has been reported from the late Kansan of Knox Coun- ty, Texas, by Tihen (1960), and Syrrhophus marnocki has been re- ported from the Sangamon of Foard County, Texas by Lynch (1964). This species probably occurs in the area today (Smith and Taylor, 1948). Leptodactylus cf. Leptodactylus labialis (Cope) Material. Posterior part of pelvic girdle including posterior parts of both ilia; one left and two right ilia, MU 8088. The only other fossil record of this genus is for the extinct species L. abavus from the early Miocene of Gilchrist County, Florida (Holman, 1965). Due to the lack of comparative material, I am unable to assign these elements to species with complete certainty. Rana pipiens Schreber Material. Two left and two right ilia; two tibiofibulae; two radio- ulnae, MU 8089. HotMAN: Fossil Herpetofauna from Mexico 155 This species is a common Pleistocene fossil in the United States, but this is the first report of it as a fossil from Mexico. The ilia of Rana pipiens may easily be separated from that of R. catesbeiana on the basis that the posterior portion of the dorsal crest slopes much less precipitously into the dorsal acetabular expansion in R. pipiens than in R. catesbeiana. Rana pipiens occurs in the area today. REPTILIA Sceloporus ct. Sceloporus variabilis (Wiegmann ) Material. Three right dentaries, MU 8090. The fossils are similar to recent S. variabilis. But the teeth of the fossils are a little more robust, and those in about the posterior two-thirds of the dentary are not as distinctly tricuspid as they are in skeletons of S. variabilis. The two larger fossils represent ani- mals of about the same size as a recent S. v. variabilis from Man- dinga, Veracruz, with a snout-vent length of about 50.0. The tooth count of two of the fossils is 23-24 (23.5); and the length of the dentary from the most posterior alveolus through the ramus in two of the fossils is 7.0-7.9 (7.45). The only other fossil record of the species is from the late Pleistocene of a cave in Kendall County, Texas (Holman, 1968). In the 20 fossil S. variabilis from the Texas site the tooth count was 23-29 (25.6); and the length of the dentary from the last alveolus through the ramus was 6.2-8.8 (7.63). Sceloporus sp. indet. Material. Four right and one left dentaries; five maxillary frag- ments; one scapulocoracoid, MU 8091. This material represents one or more larger species of Scelop- orus, but on the basis of available comparative material I am un- able to arrive at a specific identification. The tooth count of two of the fossils is 25-29 (27.0); and the length of the dentary from the most posterior alveolus through the ramus in three of the fossils is 11:5-11.8 (11.63). Lepidophyma sp. indet. Material. Four left and six right splenio-dentaries; two left and four right dentary fragments; one right posterior mandible; eight maxillary fragments, MU 8092. 156 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The dentaries are assigned to the family Xantusiidae on the basis of the following combination of strong characters pointed out by Hecht (1956): tooth replacement of the non-anguimorph pat- tern; postcoronoid process present; dentary and splenial fused to form a single element, the splenio-dentary; lingual shelf present; coronoid process strong; Meckelian groove absent; and low number of teeth present. The fossil splenio-dentaries are similar to Lepidophyma and differ from the recent xantusiid genera Cricosauria of Cuba and Xantusia and Klaubevina of southwestern United States on the basis of the much larger size of Lepidophyma. The fossils may be further separated from most Xantusia and Klauberina on the basis of having more teeth: fossils 16-17 (16.34); Xantusia vigilis 12-14 (12.6); X. henshawi 13-16 (14.8); X. arizonae 12-14 (13.1); Klau- berina riversiana 13-14 (13.3). The tooth counts for the recent forms are from Hecht (1956). There are only two fossil xantusiids known and both of these are extinct forms. The Mexican fossils from Cueva de Abra may be separated from the fossil Palaeoxantusia Hecht from the middle Eocene of Wyoming in having more teeth (Palaeoxantusia has 13) and in being larger; and they may be separated from Impensodens Langebartel, an extinct subrecent form from a cave in Yucatan, on the basis of having more teeth. Impensodens is said to have 11 or 12 teeth (Langebartel, 1953), but Hecht (1956) thinks that there may be 13 or 14 teeth in this form. Langebartel has provided measurements of the three recent species of Lepidophyma, and he explains his measurements in this way “In the case of L. s. smithi, L. flavimaculata, and G. gaigeae, the largest specimen among large series was selected for tooth and jaw measurements.” He further states that the measurement of the jaw depth behind the last tooth gives a rough index of the size of the animal. This measurement in the Cueva de Abra fossils and in the recent forms is as follows: eight fossils 1.9-3.0 (2.29); L. s. smithi 2.2; L. flavimaculata 3.0; and L. (Gaigeae) gaigeae 1.4 Therefore, as the measurements of the recent species are all based on the largest specimen of a large series, it is apparent that the fossils are most similar in size to recent L. flavimaculata. The fossil and recent Lepidophyma species all have very similar tooth counts. Today, L. smithi presumably ranges from northern Veracruz to Hoiman: Fossil Herpetofauna from Mexico 157 southern Tamaulipas on the Atlantic slopes of Mexico, and it is known from Oaxaca and Chiapas on the Pacific slopes (Smith and Taylor, 1950). But L. flavimaculata is known only from the At- lantic slopes, occurring from southern Veracruz to British Hon- duras, excluding the Yucatan Peninsula. It is interesting to note that the fossils most closely resemble in size a species that occurs far to the south of the fossil locality today. Cnemidophorus gularis Baird and Girard Material. Five left and two right dentaries; one partial maxilla, MU 8093. The jaws are quite similar in size and in other characteristics to recent C. gularis. Based on three specimens at hand, C. gularis is much smaller than C. guttatus and has a higher tooth count, 19-20 (19.3) than in C. deppei (18 in two specimens). The single com- plete fossil dentary has a tooth count of 21 and a length of the dentary as measured from the last alveolus through the ramus of the mandible of 8.8. This species is found in the area of the cave today. Colubrinae sp. indet. Material. Twenty-eight precaudal vertebrae; one partial left mandible, MU 8094. These vertebrae represent a small colubrinid snake, but there is not enough comparative material on hand to be able to deter- mine the genus or the species of the snake. COMMENTS None of the Cueva de Abra amphibians and reptiles definitely represent extinct species, or forms that would not be expected to occur in the area today, unless the species of Lepidophyma is ac- tually L. flavimaculata, a species that reaches the northern limits of its distribution in southern Veracruz. It is hoped that more fossil material will eventually be collected from this cave, and that additional comparative material will become available, so that new identifications can be made and tentative identifications can be confirmed. In the light of the presumed derivation of the fossils from the pellets regurgitated by barn owls, it is interesting to note that the 158 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES most abundant amphibian or reptile (at least 10 individuals present ) is the lizard Lepidophyma. Lepidophyma is a nocturnal animal (Alvarez del Toro, 1960) whose period of activity would presum- ably coincide with the feeding period of the barn owls. LITERATURE CITED ALVAREZ DEL Toro, M. 1960. Reptiles de Chiapas. Instituto Zoologico del Estado, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, Mexico, 204 pp., illus. DaALQuEst, W. W., AND E. R. Harty. 1947. Tadarida femorosacca (Merriam ) in Tamaulipas, Mexico. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 1, no. 13, pp. 245-248, 1 fig. Hecut, M. kK. 1956. A new xantusiid lizard from the Eocene of Wyoming. Amer. Mus. Novitates, no. 1774, pp. 1-8, 2 figs. Hotman, J. A. 1963. A new rhinophrynid frog from the early Oligocene of Canada. Copeia, 1963, no. 4, pp. 706-708, 2 figs. ——. 1965. Early Miocene anurans from Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 68-82, 2 figs. — —. 1968. A Pleistocene herpetofauna from Kendall County, Texas. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 165-172. LANGEBARTEL, D. A. 1953. Reptiles and amphibians. In R. T. Hatt et al., Faunal and archeological researches in Yucatan caves. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 33, pp. 91-108, 2 figs. Lyncu, J. D. 1964. Additional hylid and leptodactylid remains from the Pleistocene of Texas and Florida. Herpetologica, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 141-142. SmitH, H. M. anp E. H. Taytor. 1948. An annotated checklist and key to the Amphibia of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 194, 118 pp. —. 1950. An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mexico ex- clusive of the snakes. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 199, 253 pp. TiHEN, J. A. 1960. Notes on late Cenozoic hylid and leptodactylid frogs from Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Southwestern Nat., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 66- 70, figs. 1-6. Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48823. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(2) 1969 (1970) Two Fossil Owls from the Aquitanian of France PIERCE BRODKORB DuRING preparation of the fourth installment of the Catalogue of Fossil Birds I have had occasion to investigate the systematic position of two fossil owls described by Alphonse Milne-Edwards from the Aquitanian stage of France. The species in question, Strix antiqua and Bubo arvernensis, were so briefly characterized at the time of their first proposal that they are practically nomina nuda at that point (Milne-Edwards, 1863), but detailed descrip- tions and excellent illustrations were provided subsequently ( Milne- Edwards, 1871). From these it is apparent that neither species can be assigned to any known genus of the order, a lack that is remedied below. 1. Prosybris, new genus Type of Genus. Strix antiqua Milne-Edwards, which becomes Prosybris antiqua (Milne-Edwards). Family Tytonidae Ridgway. Etymology. From Greek pros (in front of, towards) and Greek Hybris (feminine, wanton violence), a name applied to the barn owl by Nitzsch; cf. also Greek prosubrizo (1 insult). Diagnosis. The type species agrees with the family Tytonidae and differs from the family Strigidae in having the tarsometatarsus without an ossified supratendinal bridge; anterior metatarsal groove deep; attachment for tibialis antiquus located relatively high on the shaft. Differs from the genus Tyto Billberg in having the tarsometatar- sus relatively somewhat stouter (very long and slender in Tyto); trochleae short; internal intertrochlear notch short; external inter- trochlear notch large, with the posterior border of the external trochlea much lengthened. Discussion. Prosybris antiqua is a pygmy species of barn owl, of size comparable to the pygmy owls of the genus Glaucidium in the family Strigidae. It provides the geologically oldest occurrence of the family Tytonidae. The Aquitanian is here considered of early Miocene age, although many authors refer it to the Oligocene. 2. Paratyto, new genus Type of Genus. Bubo arvernensis Milne-Edwards, which be- comes Paratyto arvernensis (Milne-Edwards). Family Phodilidae (Beddard). 160 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Etymology. From Greek para (by the side of) and Tyto (femi- nine, generic name of the barn owl). Diagnosis. Agrees with family Phodilidae in having tarsometa- tarsus short, very stout, and without a bony supratendinal bridge. The Tytonidae also lack an ossified supratendinal bridge, but differ in having a much longer and more slender tarsometatarsus. In the Strigidae the tarsometatarsus may vary in length and _ stoutness from genus to genus, but the supratendinal bridge is always ossified in the adult. Differs from Phodilus Geoftroy Saint Hilaire in having the outer edge of the tarsometatarsus nearly straight, instead of laterally con- vex along the middle of the shaft; trochleae close together; inter- trochlear notches narrow. Discussion. The living bay owl, Phodilus badius (Horsfield), is structurally intermediate between the barn owls and the true owls. Beddard (1898) placed it in a monotypic subfamily, which Mar- shall (1966) raised to family rank. As Paratyto and Phodilus share this intermediate position, they are here placed in the same family group. The bay owl inhabits southeastern Asia, but the presence of a related genus in the Aquitanian of France is not so strange as it might seem. Many groups of birds, now confined to the tropics, occurred in Europe during the Tertiary period. LITERATURE CITED BEDDARD, FRANK E. 1898. The structure and classification of birds. Long- mans, Green, and Co., London, xx + 548 pp., 252 figs. MarSHALL, J. T., Jr., 1966. Relationships of certain owls around the Pacific. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc., vol. 21, nos. 3-4, pp. 235-242, pls. 20-23. MiLNE-Epwarps, ALPHONSE. 1863. Sur la distribution géologique des oiseaux fossiles et description de quelques espéces nouvelles. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. 56, pp. 1219-1222. —. 1869-1871. Recherches anatomiques et paléontologiques pour servir a Vhistoire des oiseaux fossiles de la France. Librairie G. Masson, Paris, vol. 2, 632 pp., pls. 97-200. Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(2) 1969 (1970) FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1970 American Medical Research Institute Archbold Expeditions Barry College Florida Atlantic University Florida Institute of Technology Florida Presbyterian College Florida Southern College Florida State University Florida Technological University Jacksonville University Manatee Junior College Marymount College Miami-Dade Junior College Mound Park Hospital Foundation Nova University of Advanced Technology Rollins College St. Leo College Stetson University United States Sugar Corporation University of Florida University of Florida Communications Sciences Laboratory University of Miami University of South Florida University of Tampa University of West Florida FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 OFFICERS FOR 1969 President: MAuriceE A. BARTON Mound Park Hospital Foundation St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 President Elect: TayLon R. ALEXANDER Department of Biology, University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 33124 Secretary: FRANK G. NORDLIE Department of Zoology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Treasurer: E. Morton MILLER Department of Biology, University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 33124 Editor: PreRcE BRODKORB Department of Zoology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, and orders for back numbers should be addressed to the Treasurer Correspondence regarding exchanges should be addressed to Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries Gainesville, Florida 32601 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 32 September, 1969 No. 3 CONTENTS Silicon tetraacetate reaction with organolithium reagents McDonald Moore and F. C. Lanning 161 Spectral solar radiation intensity in two Florida forests John Ewel 164 Organic matter in fresh waters of South Florida William J. Gonyea and Burton P. Hunt 171 An analysis of attitude patterns at the United Nations Jack E. Vincent 185 Some aquatic Hyphomycetes of Florida Kenneth E. Conway 210 Reaction of lead tetraacetate with Grignard reagents McDonald Moore, F. C. Lanning, and William Clark 221 Studies of pollution in the Indian River complex T. A. Nevin and J. A. Lasater 225 An unusual salamander from the Ocala National Forest John B. Funderburg, David S. Lee, and Margaret L. Gilbert 230 Occurrence of the carpenter frog in Florida Henry M. Stevenson 233 A pale mutant wild turkey in juvenal plumage Lovett E. Williams, Jr. 236 The generic position of a Cretaceous bird Pierce Brodkorb 239 “RMT HSCAm™ a "A ~\ “yn SD IAD Mailed June 26, 1970 rene / MBRARIEL of f QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing significant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. 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REPRINTS may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA AGADEN YW TOR SGIENGES Vol. 32 September, 1969 No. 3 Silicon Tetraacetate Reaction with Organolithium Reagents McDonaALp Moore AND F. C. LANNING CONTINUING our interests in the reaction of silicon tetraesters with organometallic reagents (Lanning, 1953; Lanning, 1954; Lan- ning and Moore, 1958; Lanning and Emmanuel, 1963), we have studied the reactions of silicon tetraacetate with organolithium reagents. We wish to report our preliminary results on the reactions of silicon tetraacetate with butyllithium and phenyllithium. The re- actions were carried out in a ratio of two times the stoichiometric amount of organolithium reagents to silicon tetraacetate. A stoi- chiometric amount of organolithium reagent would be 4 molecules of organolithium reagent to one of the silicon tetraacetate. The following compounds have been prepared by the reaction of silicon tetraacetate and butyllithium: 2-hexanone, tetrabutylsilane and a siloxane. By using phenyllithium, acetophonone, tetra- phenylsilane and a siloxane were prepared. No alkylsilane or acrylsilane have been reported to form from the reactions of silicon tetraesters with Grignard reagents. Lanning (1954) obtained an oil containing silicon from phenylmagnesium bromide with silicon tetrabenzoate similar to the oil produced from the reaction of phenyllithium with silicon tetraacetate. The infrared spectra of these compounds were determined be- tween 400 and 4000 cm™. The infrared spectra were almost iden- tical to the same spectra in the Sadlter catalog. The infrared spectra of 2-hexanone, tetrabutylsilane and acetophenone contained tertiary alcohols bonds, but the alcohol could not be isolated, probably because the alcohols were not produced in sufficient quantity. Alkyllithium derivatives behave in much the same way as 162 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES organomagnesium compounds but with increased reactivity. It is interesting to note that trisopropylcarbinol can be made from diiso- propyl ketone and isopropyllithium but not with the corresponding Grignard reagent. EXPERIMENTAL The apparatus was similar to that used by Lanning and Moore (1958) to react silicon tetraesters with Grignard reagents. Silicon tetraacetate, butyllithium and and phenyllithium were used as ob- tained commercially from Alfa Inorganics, Inc. The reactions were carried out in an ice bath with two times the calculated stoichio- metric amount of the organolithium reagent. Reaction of Silicon Tetraacetate with Butyllithium. The cal- culated stoichiometric amount of butyllithium in tetrahydrofuran (THF) was added through a dropping funnel into a solution pre- pared from 13.5 g (0.05 mole) of silicon tetraacetate in 300 ml of THF over a 20 minute period. This mixture was stirred me- chanically for one hour after the addition was completed and then allowed to stand about 24 hours. The reaction was hydrolyzed with ice water. The organic layer was separated and dried with Drierite. The THF was removed under reduced pressure. This left a viscous light yellow oil. This oil was distilled produc- ing 2 hexanone (b. p. 130, Lit 129), tetrabutyl-silane 4.2 g (32. 8 per cent yield) (b. p. 232, Lit. 233) and a siloxane (residue ) based on its infrared spectrum. The infrared spectra of these compounds were determined and absorption peaks appeared in 2- hexanone and tetrabutylsilane at 3620 and 1150 cm. Otherwise the 2-hexanone spectrum was identical to the same spectrum in Sadtler catalog. The 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazone was prepared in the usual manner from 2-hexanone and purified from ethanol (m. p. 106-7, Lit. 107). Its infrared spectra was identical to 2-hexa- none 2-4 dinitrophenylhydrazone spectrum in the Sadtler catalog. Reaction of Silicon Tetraacetate with Phenyllithium. The re- action was carried out as previously described. Concentration of the organic layer gave a white solid and a yellow oil. The white solid was separated and washed with petroleum ether. The anal- yses proved this product to be tetraphenylsilane 6.8 g (40.4 per cent yield) (m.p. 233-4, Lit. 234). The infrared spectrum was identical to tetraphenylsilane spectrum in the Sadtler Catalog. The Moore AND LANNING: Silicon Tetraacetate Reaction 163 yellow oil was distilled yielding acetophenone (b.p. 205, Lit. 202) and a residue which the infrared spectrum indicated to be a silox- ane. The infrared spectrum of acetophenone had absorption peaks at 3620 and 1150 cm. Otherwise acetophenone spectrum was identical to the same spectra in Sadtler Catalog. A 2, 4- dinitrophenylhydrazone was prepared in the usual manner from the acetophenone, purified from ethanol (m.p. 249-50, Lit. 250). Its infrared spectrum was identical to acetophenone 2, 4-dinitro- phenylhydrazone spectrum in the Sadtler Catalog. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ¥: This work was supported by Rho Alpha Chapter of Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc. The authors wish to thank Dr. T. G. Jackson of the University of South Alabama for recording the in- frared spectra and Mr. William Clark of Mobile County Training School for technical assistance. LITERATURE CITED LANNING, F. C. 1953. Preparation and properties of silicon tetrapropion- ate. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 75, p. 1956. LANNING, F. C. 1954. Silicon Tetrabenzoate. Jour. Org. Chem., vol. 19, pp. 1171-1173. Lanninc, F. C. anp V. K. EMMANUEL. 1963. New acyloxysilanes and their reaction with Grignard reagents. Jour. Chem. Eng. Data, vol. 8, pp. 103-105. LANNING, F. C. ann M. Moore. 1958. Acyloxysilane and their reaction with Grignard reagents. Jour. Org. Chem., vol. 23, pp. 288-291. Sadtler Standard Spectra. Sadtler Research Laboratories, 1517 Vine Street, Philadelphia 2, Pennsylvania. Spectrum Nos. 6343, 4174, 3226, 2483, and 1779. Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66502. McDonald Moore’s present address: Erling Riis Re- search Laboratory, International Paper Co., Mobile Alabama 36601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32 (3) 1969 (1970) Spectral Solar Radiation Intensity in Two Florida Forests Joun EWEL PHOTOCHEMICAL reactions in plants are dependent upon mini- mal energy levels of several wavelengths of light. Therefore, a knowledge of the spectral intensity of radiation within plant com- munities is of some importance in explaining the presence or ab- sence of some species, as well as in determining the efficiency of basic processes such as photosynthesis. Most data on the spectral intensity of light in forests have been obtained using filters, much of which has been summarized by Anderson (1964). Robertson: (1966) worked with five filters in the range of 366 to 740 nm in four crops and a hardwood forest near Ottawa. Vézina and Boulter (1966) used five filters (344-737 nm) in measuring light transmission in a pine stand and a maple stand. The development of new instrumentation in the early 1960's made it possible to measure the continuous spectral distribution of visible and near-infrared solar radiation. Yocum et al. (1962) and Lemon (1962) reported the first complete (300-1000 nm) spectral distribution curve, obtained in a corn field. Their work was later published in more detail (Yocum et al., 1964). Tanner (1963) published transmission curves of shortwave radiation (400-740 nm) in a pine stand and a red maple stand. This work was extended and much additional data reported by Federer and Tanner (1966), including transmission curves in several hardwood and _ conifer stands. Freyman (1968) used an ISCO spectroradiometer to re- cord the spectral distribution (400-750 nm) of light in fir, lodge- pole pine, and aspen stands. No work has previously been reported on the spectral distribu- tion of shortwave radiation in forests of the southeastern U. S., and only Yocum et al (1964) extended their measurements to 1000 nm. Two common North Florida community types were selected for this study, mesic hammock and sandhill. Both stands are located in the San Felasco Hammock, northwest of Gainesville. Monk (1960) compared the vegetation and soils of the same two stands in which this work was done. He found that the num- ber of tree species (22 vs. 2) and basal area (46.2 vs. 14.4 m*/ha) were greater in the mesic hammock than in the sandhill, while the sandhill had more unoccupied space in the shrub, understorey, and Ewe: Solar Radiation in Forests 165 canopy layers. The mesic hammock is a fairly complex, stable community, located on moderately fertile, moist soil. It contains a large number of species, many of which are evergreen. The sand- hill community, on the other hand, is relatively simple, dependent upon fire, located on infertile, xeric soils, and is comprised of few species. METHODS An ISCO model SR spectroradiometer, in conjunction with an ISCO model SRR programmed scanning recorder, was used for all measurements. The instrument provides a continuous wavelength scan from 380-1050 nm; it has a half-bandwidth of approximately 15 nm in the 380-750 nm range and 30 nm in those wavelengths longer than 750 nm. Because of the inconsistency of the response of the photocell to wavelengths shorter than 425 nm, all data for wavelengths in the 380-420 nm range were discarded. The radi- ometer was calibrated using an ISCO SRC spectroradiometer cali- brator, which provides constant voltage at adjustable current to a ribbon filament lamp of known spectral emission. Four points were randomly selected in each of the two com- munities. Control readings, to determine incident radiation, were taken near the center of a forty acre clearing located 1.1 miles east of San Felasco Hammock. All readings were taken between 9:00 AM and 1:30 pm on April 6, and the sky was cloudless during the time that data were recorded. The sequence of measurement was as follows: clearing; mesic hammock (2 points); sandhill (2 points ); clearing; sandhill (2 points); mesic hammock (2 points); clearing. A minimum of three and a maximum of six complete spectral scans were recorded at each point per setup. The radi- ometer was placed on the ground, with care taken to assure that the diffusing head was horizontal. The sensing element was 32 cm above the surface. S. C. Snedaker aided in taking the field measure- ments. In order to adjust for the varying half-bandwidth of the instru- ment, a wavelength interval of 25 nm was used to obtain data from 425-750 nm, and one of 50 nm for 750-1100 nm. After calculating the mean intensity at each wavelength at each point, radiation in- tensity (microwatts cm ’nm~') was plotted over time for each site. The spectral intensity was determined by integrating each curve 166 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES over time, and dividing the result by the time difference between the first and last measurement at each site. Since Gainesville, at 82°20’ west longitude, lies 7°20’ west of its nearest standard merid- ian, the mean hour of measurement was converted to True Solar Time (TST) according to the method described by Reifsnyder and Lull (1965). The resulting adjusted mean hour of reading was 10:30 Am TST. RESULTS The standardized spectral intensity of the radiation measured at each of the three sites is shown in Fig. 1. Because of the mag- 140 100 CLEARING 80 60 > to} cm2 nam) SANDHILL ND ° (pn watt ENERGY o o HAMMOCK 6 7 8 9 WAVELENGTH (nm x 10° ) Fig. 1. Spectral intensity at three sites. Values standardized to 10:30 AM. TST, April 6. Ewe : Solar Radiation in Forests 167 nitudes of the differences among the three locations, a logarithmic scale has been used on the ordinate. Energy levels in the clearing reach a maximum of about 134 microwatts cm-*nm™! at 550 nm, then gradually taper off to approximately 12 microwatts cm-*nm" at 1100 nm, the longest wavelength considered. The clearing curve is similar in form and magnitude to those reported by Gates (1966). The curves for the two communities are much reduced in magni- tude, yet similar qualitatively to the clearing curve, except from 600 to 725 nm, where both communities transmit proportionally less of the incident radiation. In Fig. 2, the spectral intensity of radiation within each of the 50 46 42 38 34 30 SANDHILL % i) 5) (%) N Ld) TRANSMISSION = G0 _ i=) 2 HAMMOCK 4 5 6 7 ies 9 10 11 WAVELENGTH (nmx 107) Fig. 2. Spectral distribution of transmitted shortwave radiation in the two plant communities, expressed as per cent of incident radiation upon the clearing. 168 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES communities is expressed as a percentage of the incident radiation. In the visible range, only 1.33 per cent of the incident radiation is transmitted in the hammock, as opposed to 22.96 per cent in the sandhill, a 17-fold difference. In the near-infrared, however, the difference is not as great; the hammock transmits 11.42 per cent and the sandhill transmits 36.91 per cent. The distribution of radiation in the two communities is sum- marized in Table 1, where the data are expressed as fractions of total incoming shortwave radiation in the range of 425-1100 nm. The smallest component is the transmitted visible light in the mesic hammock, which constitutes only 0.8 per cent of the total incoming shortwave radiation. This is less than 1/16 of the corresponding fraction in the sandhill. | TABLE 1 Fractional distribution of total shortwave radiation (nm) in sandhill and mesic hammock communities Hammock Sandhill Visible Near IR Visible Near IR Disposition Total 425-700 725-1100 Total 425-700 725-1100 Transmitted .046 008 .038 OT: 148 124 Absorbed and Reflected 954 .636 318 £728 A96 BBY? Total 1.000 .644 356 1.000 .644 356 DISCUSSION The shape of the transmission curves for the two communities is similar to those of Yocum et al. (1964) in corn, Federer and Tanner (1966) in several hardwood and conifer stands, and Frey- man (1968) in two conifer and one hardwood stand. The sandhill community shows a rather irregular transmission in the visible range with no marked depressions, which is very similar to the re- sults obtained by Vézina and Boulter (1966) in a red pine stand. They attributed this neutral filtering to the fact that they were working in a coniferous forest, but my results suggest that neutral filtering may be characteristic of other monospecific vegetation types, hardwood or conifer; in this case, the species is turkey oak (Quercus laevis). This observation is further confirmed by the data of Yocum et al. (1964) and Federer and Tanner (1966). The mesic hammock demonstrates a definite absorption and/or Ewe t: Solar Radiation in Forests 169 reflection maximum of 675 nm, which is within a half-bandwidth of one of the chlorophyll absorption peaks. This indicates that the mesic hammock is more successful than the sandhill in absorbing photosynthetically useful wavelengths. Both communities transmit a relatively high proportion of the incident near-infrared radiation, similar to the results reported in corn by Yocum et al. (1964). The per cent transmission curve for the sandhill indicates a definite decline in transmission at 1000 nm. The data on leaf absorption and reflection of Yocum et al. (1964) lead me to believe that this decline represents an increase in reflec- tion, rather than increased absorption. If this is the case, it might be one mechanism by which turkey oak reduces its uptake of heat- producing radiation. Transmission of visible radiation by most forests ranges between 7 and 15 per cent (Reifsynder and Lull, 1965). The 23 per cent transmission by the sandhill community is exceptionally high, but not surprising when one considers that most measurements have been made in dense forests with at least 80 per cent crown closure, whereas crown cover in the sandhill is only about 40 per cent (Monk, 1960). Furthermore, since the sensing head of the radi- ometer was located at 32 cm, absorption of radiation by the grass and herbaceous ground cover was not considered in the measure- ments. If the ground cover had been included, this high transmis- sion would have urdoubtedly been reduced considerably. The transmission of only 1.3 per cent of the visible radiation in the mesic hammock is lower than any reported in the literature. Crown closure, however, is not significantly greater than that of other forest types which have been studied. One parameter that is different is the number of species present; no other type for which transmission data are available has as many as the 22 that are present in the hammock. If this does account for the increased ab- sorption, it would indicate that the mesic hammock contains a series of species which are capable of utilizing solar energy at suc- cessively lowered intensities as radiation penetrates the stand. SUMMARY The spectral distribution of transmitted shortwave radiation was measured in two North Florida communities. These data were compared with shortwave radiation incident upon a nearby clear- 170 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ing. One community, a mesic hammock, has a complex structure, whereas the sandhill with which it was compared is a relatively simple community. Transmission for all wavelengths (425-1100 nm) averages about 4.6 per cent in the hammock and 27.2 per cent in the sandhill. The sandhill community acts almost like a neutral filter of shortwave radiation, whereas the hammock exhibits selec- tivity for wavelengths absorbed by chlorophyll. LITERATURE CITED ANDERSON, M. C. 1964. Light relations of terrestrial plant communities. Biol. Rev., vol. 39, pp. 425-486. FEDERER, C. A., AND C. B. TANNER. 1966. Spectral distribution of light in the forest. Ecology, vol. 47, pp. 555-560. FREYMAN, S. 1968. Spectral distribution of light in forests of the Douglas fir zone of southern British Columbia. Canad. Jour. Plant Sci., vol. 48, pp. 326-328. Gates, D. M. 1966. Spectral distribution of solar radiation at the earth’s sur- face. Science, vol. 151, pp. 523-529. Lemon, E. 1962. Energy and water balance in plant communities. Research Report No. 359. A.R.S. USDA, Washington, D.C. Monk, C. D., 1960. A preliminary study on the relationships between the vegetation of a mesic hammock community and a sandhill community. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 23, pp. 1-12. REIFSNYDER, W. E., aNp H. W. Lux. 1965. Radiant energy in relation to forests. USDA Tech. Bull. No. 1344, Washington, D.C. RoBertson, G. W. 1966. The light composition of solar and sky spectra available to plants. Ecology, vol. 47, pp. 640-643. Tanner, C. B. 1963. Basic instrumentation and measurements for plant en- vironment and micrometeorology. Soils Bull. No. 6. Dept. of Soil Sci., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Vezina, P. E., anp D. W. K. Boutter. 1966. The spectral composition of near ultraviolet and visible radiation beneath forest canopies. Canad. Jour. Bot., vol. 44, pp. 1267-1284. Yocum, C. S., L. H. ALLEN, AND E. R. Lemon. 1962. Solar radiation balance and photosynthetic efficiency. A.R.S. USDA, Interim Report N. 62-3, Washington, D.C. 1964. Photosynthesis under field conditions. VI. Solar radiation bal- ance and photosynthetic efficiency. Agron. Jour., vol. 56, pp. 249-253. Center for Tropical Agriculture, University of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida. Present address: Botany Department, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969 (1970) Organic Matter in Fresh Waters of South Florida WiLuiAM J. GONYEA AND Burton P. HuNT THE relative abundance of organic matter is of considerable im- portance in delimiting the level of productivity in an aquatic ecosystem (Reid, 1967), but accurate measurement of organic matter in water is often difficult because of the varying physical states and amounts of organic and inorganic substances. Organic matter is present in solution in fresh water, as organic debris, and as plankton. It is derived from allochthonous material carried into the water from outside sources, and from autochthonous matter produced within the body of water by living organisms. The ashing method is the most common means of measuring total organic matter. This is accomplished by determining the loss of weight on ignition of a sample that has been evaporated to dryness ( Hutchinson, 1957). This procedure gives an ash free dry weight which is only an indirect estimate of the organic matter because it carries an error proportional to the amount of volatile inorganic material present (American Public Health Association, 1965). A number of hydrochemical methods of organic matter analyses, using dichromate oxidation, have been described in recent years by Moore, et al. (1949), Moore and Walker (1956), Nikolaeva (1953), Votintsev (1955), and Maciolek (1962). Maciolek’s method was designed to measure the very small quantities of organic matter found in mountain lakes of western United States. In our work we have found the ashing method generally un- satisfactory; therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if Maciolek’s method could be applied satisfactorily to the diverse limnological conditions, and to the large quantities of organic mat- ter, found in the fresh waters of southern Florida. Measurements of organic matter by ashing and pilot analyses by dichromate oxida- tion showed that the quantity of total organic matter usually ex- ceeded 10 mg per liter and some waters contained more than 100 mg per liter. These amounts far exceed those reported for other waters in the United States. Maciolek (1962, 1968) reported that the waters of high mountain lakes contained 1.05-1.84 mg per liter of organic matter. The lakes of Wisconsin were reported by Birge and Juday (1934) to have an organic content of 3.71-50.34 172 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mg per liter. Applegate and Mullan (1967) found the fresh water reservoirs in Arkansas to contain 6.87-7.42 mg per liter of organic matter. To ascertain the range in amounts of organic matter, locations were se- lected to provide samples from a variety of aquatic environments, as follows: Station 1, Deep Lake, Collier County, Township 51 S, Range 30 E, Section 7; Station 2) Lamiami) Trail! Canal, Collier (County, wos) Seehne2 eee Scene: Station 3, Tamiami Trail Canal, Collier County, T. 53 S, R. 30 E, Sec. 18; Station 4, Tamiami ‘Trail Canal, Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 39 E, See. 6; Station 5, Survey Pond (a quarry pond), Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 39 E, Sec. 6; Station 6, Redskin Pond (a quarry pond), T. 54 S, R. 39 E, Sec. 3; Station 7, Coral Park Lake (a quarry lake), Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 39 E, Sec. 8; Station 8, Lake Catalina (a quarry lake), Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 22; Station 9, Rockpit No. 1 (a quarry pond), Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 22; Station 10, Cypress strand, Monroe County, T. 54 S, R. 33 E; Station 11, Rockpit No. 2 (a quarry pond), Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 22; Station 12, Coral Lake (a quarry lake), Dade @ounty, T- 54 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 23; Station 13, Coral Gables Canal, Dade County, T. 53 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 13; Station 14, Lake Okeechobee, South Bay, Palm Beach County, VT: 43 S, R. 36 E; Station 15, Black Creek DaderC@onntyywli mons: R. 40 E, Sec. 32; Station 16, Rockpit No. 3 (a quarry pond), Broward County, T. 50 S, R. 39 E, Sec. 10; Station 17, Rockpit No. 4 (a quarry pond), Dade County, T. 56 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 4; Station 18, Snapper Creek, Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 35; Station 19, Cattail Pond, Dade County, T. 53 S, R. 40 E, Sec. 32; Station 20, Kendall Lake (a quarry lake), Dade County, T. 55 S, R. 40°E, Sec. 10; Station 21, Conservation Area No. 3, Everglades, Dade County, T. 54 S, R. 38 E, Sec. 4; Station 22, Airport Rock- pit (a quarry pond), Dade County, 1. 54S) Re 40REssSceumiaeotanoun2.: Miller ake, (a quarry lake); Dade County, UT. S405) 040 mE sce 20- Station 24, Conservation Area No. 2, Everglades, Broward County, T. 49 S, In, oS) 10, SEO, 1S, METHODS Our procedure generally foilowed the micro method of Macio- lek (1962). Three 100 ml samples of water were taken at each station and evaporated to dryness at 95 C. A measured volume of potassium dichromate solution and twice as much concentrated sulphuric acid were added to the samples which were then placed in a boiling water bath for 3 hours. After cooling, the reaction mixture was diluted with distilled water and the excess dichromate titrated with a solution of ferrous sulphate, using barium dipheny- lamine sulfonate as the indicator. The end point is very sharp; the color of the solution changing from a reddish blue to bright green. GONYEA AND Hunt: Organic Matter in Water 173 % Dichromate Reduced 0 25 50 75 100 Dextrose Oxidized ‘ho Milligrams of Dextrose Used 1. Comparison of the amount of dextrose oxidized and the amount of 5 zy & 0.20 n dichromate reduced. We find that the ferrous sulphate solution should be standardized daily because of its tendency towards autodecomposition. In employing this method (Maciolek, 1962) the oxygen con- sumed (O.C.) values are derived from the difference between the sample and reagent blank titres. The total organic matter in mg per liter is obtained by multiplying the O.C. values of the samples by the reciprocal of 1.43 (= 0.7). This universal factor was based on analysis of a great many representative substrates. In using this constant, the calculated organic weight is expected to be +10 per cent of the true value. The O.C. value (in mg) is converted into 174 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 The percentage of 0.200N potassium dichromate reduced and total organic matter present in a number of South Florida waters Date Organic Percentage Station*® Collected matter of dichromate Standard 1968 mg/1 reduced deviation 1 6/29 36.0 60.0 0.046 2 6/29 19.1 31.9 0.000 3 6/29 2971 52.5 0.058 4 6/29 36.4 64.0 0.095 5 6/29 43.2 82.0 0.200 6 6/29 36.9 46.5 0.116 ie 6/29 22.4 39.3 0.050 8 6/29 12.0 21.6 0.000 9 6/29 52 27.3 0.090 10 6/29 19.6 33.7 0.117 11 6/29 10.8 17.4 0.000 12 6/21 14.8 26.8 0.046 13 6/25 17.4 31.4 0.612 14 4/27 43.0 81.9 0.000 23 6/27 Pe 19.4 0.108 *Three 100 ml samples of surface water were processed for each station. organic energy in gram calories by multiplying it by 3.4. Organic carbon in the sample is calculated by multiplying the O.C. value by the reciprocal of 2.86 (=0.35). To determine whether one normality of potassium dichromate would be sensitive to, and measure accurately, very small as well as large quantities of organic matter and still give acceptable re- sults, a large number of waters were sampled using replicate 100 ml samples. These were analyzed using different volumes of potassium dichromate and normalities which ranged from 0.05- GONYEA AND Hunt: Organic Matter in Water 1 Ey (ia, 2.00. The results indicated that 5 ml of a 0.200 N solution gave satisfactory measurements of organic matter. To further determine if this one normality would best apply to a variety of conditions, 5 ml of 0.200 N dichromate solution was tested on precisely weighed amounts of dextrose, ranging from 0.6 mg-6 mg, in order to determine the effectiveness and sensitivity of this solution. Fig. 1 shows that up to 3 mg of dextrose was oxidized to 96 per cent by this normality with about 50 per cent of the dichromate being reduced, a condition which Maciolek (1962) in- dicates gives the best analytical result. The 3.0 mg of dextrose is the equivalent of 30 mg of organic matter per liter of water when a 100 ml sample is processed. Fig. 1 also indicates that amounts of dextrose as small as 0.6 mg (=6 mg of organic matter per liter) can be measured accurately. The data in Fig. | can be used to adjust the sample size, the normality, or the volume of dichromate to obtain the highest degree of accuracy. Table 1 indicates that 0.200 n dichromate is satis- factory for measuring the organic matter in a variety of conditions. In this series of pilot analyses, the per cent of dichromate reduced varied from 17.4-82.0 when the weight of organic matter varied from 10.8-43.2 mg per liter. These data also show that with good analytical methods a single normality can be used and still main- tain a very low standard deviation when replicate samples are processed. This was not the case when other normalities of dichromate were tested. To compare the dichromate and the ashing methods, a number of duplicate 100 ml water samples were dried at 103 C, weighed, ignited at 600 C for 1 hour in a muffle furnace, and reweighed. The samples were then hydrated with a few drops of distilled water which had a high CO, content and allowed to sit for 4 hours. They were then dried at 103 C and weighed again. This gave the ash free dry weight after hydration which was compared to re- sults obtained by processing duplicate samples by dichromate oxida- tion. To determine the affects of volatile inorganic matter on the ashing method, duplicate 100 mg samples of anhydrous calcium bicarbonate were ignited at 600 C for i hour. This resulted in all but 2 mg of the calcium bicarbonate being burned off. The samples were hydrated and dried, with the total weight of the 176 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES calcium bicarbonate being regained. This was not the case when the same amount of sodium bicarbonate was treated in the same manner, since 60 per cent of it was lost on ignition with no weight being regained by the sample after hydration. A number of methods were employed to determine the size of the particles of the organic matter in local waters. Apparatus used was the Foerst plankton centrifuge, no. 50 Whatman filter paper, and Milipore filters ranging from 5,-0.22u in pore size. The 0.45 pu Milipore filter removed all living organisms and everything passing through was considered to be in a dissolved state. COMPARISON OF ASHING AND DICHROMATE METHODS Samples from 22 stations were analysed by the two methods. The results showed a general lack of agreement in the amount of organic matter present at 20 stations (Table 2). In only two cases (Stations 15 and 17) were the quantities of organic matter, as measured by the two procedures, virtually identical. It is apparent from the data that in most cases the amount of organic matter, ex- pressed as hydrated ash free dry weight (AFWH), was greater than the amounts measured by dichromate oxidation (DM). How- ever, in 25 per cent of the samples compared the reverse was true. The greatest discrepancies were encountered at stations 11, 13, and 22, where the percentage of difference was 101, 106, and 138, respectively. Non-hydrated ashed samples (AFW) from all 22 stations had results that were generally much higher when compared with duplicate samples processed using the dichromate method. The difference varied from 5.3-353 per cent, and the average variation, when all 22 stations were compared, was 109 per cent. In evaluating the ashing method the data in Table 2 shows that in all but 4 cases (stations 4, 9, 10, and 23) the non-hydrated ash gave a weight loss on ignition greater than duplicate samples that were processed by hydrating the ash. Two stations (4 and 23) showed identical results. The data from stations 9 and 10 were contrary to expected results, since it showed an increase in the hydrated ash free dry weight. Total alkalinity was measured at several stations and the data compared to the difference between the hydrated and non-hy- drated ash free dry weight of samples taken from the same station. GONYEA AND Hunt: Organic Matter in Water IAT TABLE 2 Comparison of total organic matter measured by ashing and dichromate methods Date Station 1968 DW* AFW AFWH DM 1 6/29 208 48 41 36.0 2 6/29 179 35 31 18.5 3 6/29 293 45 34 29.1 4 6/29 24] 39 39 36.4 5 6/29 397 84 50 43,2 6 6/29 O54 54 4d 36.9 7 6/29 300 80 29 29.4 8 6/29 207 35 i 12.0 9 6/29 165 16 25 15.2 10 6/29 173 31 36 19.6 ul 6/29 249 42 5 10.1 13 8/09 386 147 71 34.4 14 7/28 681 159 102 108.8 15 8/17 258 14 6 6.1 16 8/10 451 105 37 54.0 17 8/17 153 34 23 22.9 18 8/17 300 39 23 31.8 19 7/27 331 53 43 26.8 20 8/03 187 27 12 10.4 21 8/04 160 30 24 21.8 29 8/10 214 82 65 97,9 28 6/27 231 14 14 ried *Weights are in mg per liter and are the mean of 3 samples of unfiltered surface water. DW = Dry Weight; AFW = Ash-Free Dry Weight; AFWH = Hydrated Ash-Free Dry Weight; DM = Dichromate Method. 178 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There is some indication that the degree of discrepancy between the non-hydrated and hydrated samples is related to the quantity of alkaline substances present. Of the stations sampled, those that had the higher total alkalinity had the highest percentage of differ- ence, with the reverse being true for the stations with low alkalin- ity. Both methods were again compared using dried periphyton. The periphyton communities which consist mainly of blue-green algae precipitate large quantities of calcium carbonate and have an organic content, measured by ashing, ranging from 99 to 27 per cent depending on the age of the community (Van Meter, 1965). Because of the large quantities of carbonate in some of these samples we were in doubt as to the accuracy of this method, especially when the ash was not hydrated. We processed several samples of periphyton from Station 19 and found an average organic content of 26.0 per cent using the ashing method and 26.4 per cent using the dichromate method. Samples from Station 21 had an organic content of 88.0 per cent measured by ashing and 85.5 per cent employing dichromate. These comparative results are very close and indicate that the ashing technique works well when the inorganic matter present is chiefly calcium carbonate. Plankton samples from Coral Gables Canal (Station 13) were obtained by passing water through a Foerst plankton centrifuge at a rate of | liter of water in 6 minutes. The plankton concentrate was dried at 95 C and three replicate samples were processed by both methods. The ashing procedure gave a mean organic content of 1.60 mg per liter, while the dichromate method showed a mean organic content of 1.63 mg per liter. This comparison also showed good agreement between the two methods when the organic matter is free of contamination by large quantities of volatile inorganic substances. While the ashing method appeared to give accurate results when the material tested consisted essentially of organic matter such as plankton or periphvton, it was much less reliable when applied to a variety of water samples. The dichromate oxidation procedure is clearly superior for the analysis of a large variety of aquatic samples wherein the kinds and amounts of organic and inorganic substances vary greatly. GONYEA AND Hunt: Organic Matter in Water 179 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC MATTER IN DEEP LAKE Deep Lake (Station 1) was selected to study the vertical varia- tions of organic matter in a deep water environment. It is a sink- hole that has an area of 1.52 acres and a depth of 95 feet (Parker and Cooke, 1944). The upper limits of a persistent chemocline is located at a depth of about 75 feet (Hunt, 1958). Our data show that the amount of organic matter rises sharply below 75 feet (Fig. 2), with the maximum measured amount being 110.5 mg ORGANIC MATTER IN MG. PER LITER 20 40 60 80 100 120140 180 220 BICARBONATES DICHROMATE : 4 i + i + ap i + i + ; et acy 1 + I it <— ASHING DEPTH IN FEET (RES aon a~e x a 100 200 300 400 500 600 BICARBONATES IN MG. PER LITER Fig. 2. Vertical distribution of total organic matter in Deep Lake. All samples were collected on March 30, 1968, with the organic matter being analyzed by the dichromate and ashing methods. 180 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES per liter at a depth of 85 feet. Below 75 feet there is a great in- crease in various inorganic substances, such as dissolved gases, chlorides, and bicarbonates. Fig. 2 also shows the results of a comparison of the dichromate and ashing methods in determining total organic matter. The difference in the results obtained by the two methods increases significantly below 75 feet. The largest measured quantity of organic matter using the ashing method was 220 mg per liter at a depth of 85 feet. A dichromate analysis at the same depth showed 110.5 mg per liter of organic matter. Fig. 2 also shows an increase in bicarbonates below 75 feet, with the maximum amount at a depth of 85 feet. The increase in in- organic matter below 75 feet is probably the reason for the in- creasing disparity between results obtained by the ashing and dichromate methods. Because of the large quantities of organic matter found below 75 feet, the sample size was reduced from 100-50 ml and the volume of dichromate increased from 5-10 ml. DIssOLVED AND SUSPENDED MATTER Water samples were obtained from the Coral Gables Canal (Station 13) over a period of about a month and analyzed to determine the relationship between the amount of suspended and dissolved organic matter. During this period the nature of the canal changed from a running water environment (July 21) be- cause of heavy rains, to virtually that of a pond (August 9), be- cause of low water and the impedance of a salinity dam. There was a reduction in the amount of suspended organic matter from July 21 through the 24 (Fig. 3), probably caused by the decrease in allochthonous material entering the canal when the rains ceased. A plankton pulse of major proportions occurred during the interval and was at its height on August 9. This again caused an increase in suspended organic matter. By August 16 the plankton pulse had ceased and most organisms were in various stages of decay which reduced the amount of suspended matter but tremendously increased the dissolved organic material. Fig. 3 also shows the amounts of organic matter in the raw water and the amounts which were removed by, and passed through, the plankton centrifuge, Whatman #50 filter paper, and various sizes of milipore filters for each of the four samples pro- GONYEA AND Hunt: Organic Matter in Water 181 AUGUST 9 = ‘ ane ere yous 16 Be a ee ee \ JULY 19 SS ‘S \ pt era ae JULY 24 ORGANIC MATTER IN MG. PER LITER RAW CENTRIFUGE WHATMAN 3y 1.2y 0.45y 0.224 ee eee DECREASE IN FILTER PORE SIZE 3. Comparison of the quantity and the particle size of organic matter in he Coral Gables Canal. cessed. Of the total organic matter present during this interval the suspended component varied from 1.0-16.6 mg per liter (3.7- 48.3 per cent) and dissolved material ranged from 13.9-26.0 mg per liter (51.7-96.3 per cent). It is apparent that even during the heavy plankton pulse the amount of dissolved organic matter, which varied greatly during this short period of time, exceeded one-half of the total. Measurements of the amounts of suspended and dissolved organic matter in surface waters of 10 of our sampling stations are shown in Table 3. The variability of the total organic content, 182 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 3 Comparison of suspended and dissolved organic matter* Station & Sample Mean O.C. Standard Coefhi- Organic Date type mg per devia- cient matter 1968 100 ml. tion variation mg per liter 18} whole water 4,9] 0.090 1.84% 34.4 6/28 filtrate Blog 0.000 0.00% 17.6 14 whole water 15.54 0.090 0.55% 108.8 7/28 filtrate 14.10 0.132 0.88% 98.7 tS whole water 0.87 0.000 0.00% 6.1 8/17 filtrate 0.70 0.040 6.06% 4.9 16 whole water eval 0.000 0.00% 54.0 8/10 filtrate 7.49 0.000 0.00% 52.4 a whole water 3.27 0.000 0.00% 22.9 8/17 filtrate 3.23 0.000 0.00% 22.6 18 whole water 4.55 0.106 2.33% 31.8 8/17 filtrate 4,44 0.000 0.00% 31.0 19 whole water BAB) 0.000 0.00% 36.8 TAT filtrate 4.88 0.036 0.74% 34.2 20 whole water 1.49 0.045 3.04% 10.4 8/03 filtrate 1.39 0.000 0.00% 9.7 21 whole water 3.04 0.000 0.00% 21.3 8/04 filtrate 3.01 0.000 0.00% OR 22 whole water 3.88 0.000 0.00% 27.2 8/10 filtrate 3.74 0.000 0.00% 26.2 *The results are the means of three 100 ml samples. Filtrate is the material which passed through a 0.45 », milipore filter. GoNYEA AND Hunt: Organic Matter in Water 183 which ranged from 6.1-108.8 mg per liter, is also reflected in the amounts of dissolved organic material present which ranged from 4.9-98.7 mg per liter. With the exception of the Coral Gables Canal (Station 13) where the dissolved material constituted only 51.2 per cent of the total organic matter on June 28, and 51.7 per cent on August 9 (Fig. 3), the water at the other nine stations had no less than 80.3 per cent of the organic material in the dissolved state. At most stations the dissolved component was in excess of 90.7 per cent with five of the localities having a dissolved organic content ranging from 96.3-99.1 per cent. These results strongly indicate that usually far less than one- half of the total organic maiter in the waters of southern Florida is composd of plankton and larger units of particulate organic debris, and that most of it occurs 1n a particle size which we consider to be in the dissolved state. The dichromate method of organic analysis has demonstrated procedural simplicity, very slight variability in replicate sampling, and the capacity to measure with accuracy small differences in these samples. LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN Pusiic HEALTH AssociIATION. 1965. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water including bottom sediments and sludges. American Public Health Association, Inc., New York, vol, IA, jayd. less. APPLEGATE, RICHARD L., AND JAMES W. Mutuan. 1967. Standing crops of dissolved organic matter, plankton, and seston in an old Ozark reservoir. Reservoir Fishery Resources Symposium, American Fisheries Society, pp. 517-530. Birce, E., aNnp C. Jupay. 1934. Particulate and dissolved organic matter in inland lakes. Ecological Monographs, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 440-474. Hunt, Burton P. 1958. Limnetic distribution of Chaoborus larvae in a deep Florida lake (Diptera: Culicidae) Florida Entomologist, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 111-116. HutcHINson, G. EvELyN. 1957. A treatise on limnology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, vol. 1, pp. 1-1015. MAcIOLEK, JOHN A. 1962. Limnological organic analysis by quantitative dichromate oxidation. U.S. Fish Wild. Serv. Res. Rep. 60, pp. 1-61. MAcIOLEK, JOHN A., AND M. G. Tunze. 1968. Microseston dynamics in a simple Sierra Nevada lake-stream system. Ecology, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 60-75. 184 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Moore, W., AND R. KRONER, AND C. RucuHorr. 1949. Dichromate reflux method for determination of oxygen consumed. Analytical Chemistry, vol. 21, pp. 953-957. Moore, W., AND W. WALKER. 1956. Determination of low chemical oxygen demands of surface waters by dichromate oxidation. Analytical Chemistry, vol. 28, pp. 164-167. NrIKoLAEvA, E. 1953. On the dichromate method of determining the oxi- dation of organic substances in fresh water. Gidrokhimicheskie Ma- terialy Akademiia Nauk S.S.S.R., vol. 20, pp. 68-78. PARKER, G. G., anp C. W. Cooxe. 1944. Late Cenozoic geology of southern Florida, with a discussion of the ground water. Florida Geol. Surv., Geol. Bull. no. 27, pp. 29-31. Rem, GeorceE k. 1967. Ecology of inland waters and estuaries. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, pp. 1-375. VaNMeEtTER, Nancy. 1965. Some quantitative and qualitative aspects of periphyton in the Everglades. Coral Gables, Florida. Unpublished thesis, University of Miami. VotTintsEv, K. 1955. Vertical distribution and seasonal variation of organic matter in the water of Lake Baikal. Doklaky Akademiia Nauk S:S:S-Re vol. LOl mo. 2) pp. so0-obus Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969 (1970) An Analysis of Attitude Patterns at the United Nations JACK E. VINCENT Tus study examines United Nations delegate attitudes toward the major organs of the United Nations. It attempts to ascertain what relationships, if any, can be found between attitudinal pat- terns and the characteristics of the respondents’ home states, using the techniques of factor analysis and canonical correlation. It is a complement to another study focusing on the same problem area, entitled “National Attributes as Predictors of Delegate Attitudes at the United Nations” (Vincent, 1968). The potential importance of delegate attitudes to the develop- ment of the United Nations has been stressed in the above study and need not be repeated here. In general, however, it may be pointed out that delegates possess “influence potential” because of the kind of role they play in the United Nations setting. Particu- larly pertinent is the fact that delegates: (1) sometimes make de- cisions without directions from their home governments, (2) supply information to their home governments, and hence their personal opinion is probably reflected in this intelligence, and (3) are fre- quently asked for their advice when home governments compile in- structions. It should be apparent, however, that delegate attitudes are not the only important variables relevant to the present or future behavior patterns evident at the United Nations. Discussions of the possible ramifications of delegate attitude patterns and the rela- tionship of these patterns to predictors, then, must be considered prefaced by the phrase, “to the extent delegate attitudes are perti- nent.” It is difficult, however, at this stage, to gain the kind of in- formation that is necessary to make an assessment of the exact de- gree or uniformity of delegate influence. It must be simply as- sumed, in view of the above recited facts, that delegate attitudes are indeed pertinent. Also, many kinds of variables might account or relate to delegate attitudes. Categories such as “genetic,” “past experience,’ and “environmental,” may come to mind as potentially relevant categories of variables. Until more is known about atti- tude formation and attitudes generally, it is probably premature, however, to attempt to organize such variables into a “theory” of delegate attitudes. This study, then, has a kind of “pilot” character. 186 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Its purpose is to do some of the spade work which is probably necessary before it is possible to make sophisticated theoretical formulations about the role of delegates and delegate attitudes at the United Nations. Data COLLECTION AND QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION The data used in this study was collected from March to December, 1965. All of the United Nations delegations were con- tacted and 68 cooperated with the project. The delegates com- pleted a 55-item questionnaire relating to “satisfactions” with, “per- ceptions’ of, “desires” concerning, and “predictions” about the major organs of the United Nations. For example, in order to probe satisfactions, the delegates were asked to: “Please indicate your degree of satisfaction or dissatisfac- tion with the following areas:” “Voting Procedures,’ “Membership Arrangements (Charter Provisions),” and “Membership Arrange- ments (Understandings and Agreements to Allocate Seats or Posi- tions).” Under each subcategory (i.e., “Voting Procedures’) cer- tain United Nations organs were listed and the delegates were asked to mark “answer lines” next to the listed organs. Each answer line had “Highly Satisfied” at one polar extreme of the line, and “Highly Dissatisfied” at the other, with a “zero point” in the center. The delegates were told: Naturally, you can mark anywhere on the answer line. The major idea is that satisfaction, or dissatisfaction, increases as you move away from the “0” on the answer line. We understand that you may hold certain reservations or qualifications in mind in mark- ing a particular answer line. What we want is your general impression of the situation. The delegates were also told: The results of the study will be used solely for academic pur- poses. (In any published results, it will not be possible to identify those that help us, either by person or nation). Other matters were investigated about the organs using similar techniques, for example, employing “Increasing” and “Decreasing” (relating to importance ) at the polar extremes of the answer lines. To establish a basis for questionnaire validity, 51 non-delegate judges were asked to “assume you are a UN delegate with positive VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 187 feelings, perceptions, desires, about the United Nations, who sees things in dynamic terms,” and to mark the appropriate nominal ends of the answer lines (i.e., satisfied or dissatisfied, etc.) for each question. The judges were then further asked to label each of the chosen nominal categories as either a positive feeling, posi- tive perception, positive desire, or dynamic perception. There was 95 per cent agreement between the judges, in connection with the questions asked, that “satisfied” is a positive feeling; “increasing,” a positive perception; “increase,” a positive desire; and “probable,” a dynamic perception. For example, to see the General Assembly as increasing in importance was viewed by the judges as a “positive perception”, and to want to increase its importance a “positive de- sire’ and so forth. Using the mean value of delegate response on the answer line as a zero point, it was decided to label delegate responses which deviate toward the ends of the answer lines predicted by the judges as “positive” or “dynamic” delegate reactions, and those that deviate away as “negative” or “static” delegate reactions. Every delegate response, then, unless it is exactly on the mean, falls in the category of “positive” or “negative,” or “dynamic” or “static. The problem of questionnaire reliability was then ap- proached by treating each positive and dynamic delegate response as correct, and each negative or static response as incorrect, and applying the “Kuder-Richardson formula 20.” In these terms the uncorrected reliability was estimated as .93 and the corrected re- liability as .96, although these estimates, of course, apply to the entire test instrument and not its individual items, which were the focal point of attention in this study. Scores for the remaining data analysis were generated by divid- ing each answer line into 21 parts with magnitude increasing moving from left to right and zero scored as 11. The actual dele- gate responses tended to range across the answer lines, ie., in 39 questions, they range from 1 to 21; in 9, from | to 20; in 1, from 1 to 19; in 2, from I to 17; in 1, from 1 to 16; in 1, from 1 to 14, and me, trom | to 13. ANALYSIS OF QUESTIONNAIRE DATA To facilitate analysis, the questionnaire data was factor ana- lyzed using the principal component solution, unities in the prin- 188 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cipal diagonal, and a minimum eigenvalue 1.0 for rotation in the application of Kaiser's varimax criterion (Clyde, 1966, pp. 15-19; Vincent, 1969). Factor analysis is a powerful research tool be- cause it can reduce a large number of variables to a smaller num- ber with little loss of information. The new variables or factors not only possess manageability in comparison with the larger num- ber of original variables, but also possess certain other highly de- sirable characteristics. Simply put, the factors are theoretical linear dimensions cutting through the original variables. Factor scores to locate respondents on these dimensions may be calculated and, using the varimax criterion of rotation, are orthogonal to one an- other (Glass and Maguire, 1966). This means that the factor scores on one factor dimensicn cannot be used to predict the factor scores on any other factor dimension in the analysis. Therefore, we know in the discussion of any particular factor dimension that we are dealing with a distinct dimension. In short, confusing in- terrelationships among original variables are eliminated in the sense that they are replaced by new variables (factors) with zero order correlations between them. “Loadings” of the variables on the factor dimensions are calcu- lated from a correlation matrix of each variable with every other variable. Loadings can be thought of as correlations of the vari- ables with the factors. Original scores (in standard form) on the variables with the heavier loadings contribute more to a subject's “factor scores’ than original scores on variables with lighter load- ings. Subjects with large factor scores, of course, stand higher on a particular factor dimension than subjects with smaller factor scores. After factor analysis and the calculation of “factor scores,” then, we know how each original variable relates to (loads upon) each factor dimension and where each subject stands (his factor score) on them. Factor analysis of data is particularly useful in studies employ- ing multiple regression analysis. “Weights” which are created in such an analysis may be viewed as distinguishing between vari- ables in terms of their “explanatory” importance if the variables are orthogonal (i.e., have a zero order correlation). Weights cannot be directly interpreted in this fashion if confusing interrela- tionships exist between the variables. Factor analysis, then, sets up the conditions for the most convenient interpretation of the VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 189 powerful tool of canonical correlation, a special kind of multiple regression analysis which will be explained shortly. In that 55 answer lines were used in the present study, 55 variables were treated in the intercorrelation matrix. The 55 vari- ables reduced, after rotation, to 14 factors. To facilitate presenta- tion, low loadings (below .30) are ignored and all loadings are re- ported as positive. In the case of the first factor dimension, if a respondent has a high factor score, he tends to mark the answer lines to indicate that he feels that the General Committee (.90), and Main Com- mittees (.88), the General Assembly (.71), the International Court of Justice (.48), and the Secretariat (.41) are decreasing in im- portance at present. Further, he tends to see the Main Commit- tees (.70), the General Committee (.67), the General Assembly (.64), and the Secretariat (.32) as decreasing in importance in the future, and tends to express a desire to decrease the role and powers of the General Committee (.63), Main Committees (.58), General Assembly (.44), and Secretariat (.31). Finally he tends to be dissatisfied with the role and powers of the Main Commit- tees (.40), General Committee (.39), and the General Assembly (.33). (Variance accounted for=11 per cent). A subject with a low factor score, of course, tends to exhibit the opposite characteristics, ie., tends to see the General Committee, Main Committees, the General Assembly, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat as increasing in importance at the present and so forth. In terms of its overall features, the first factor might be christened the “General Assembly Importance Factor.” The naming of factors is always arbitrary. Alker and Russett (1965, p. 36) have argued, “Factors are not born with names but must be christened by their parents who may not be able to agree on what they should be called.” In fact, “factor names” may fall short of describing all of the variables loading most heavily on the factor. A listing of the heaviest loadings, then, makes it clear which are the important tests involved in producing factor scores. Simply referring to factor dimensions by their “name,” then, may not do complete justice to the actual loadings. Proceeding with the analysis, then, a high scoring respondent on the second factor tends to: (1) express dissatisfaction with the 190 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voting systems of the Security Council (.74) and Economic and Social Council (.55), (2) express dissatisfaction with the mem- bership arrangements of the Security Council (.87) and the Eco- nomic and Social Council (.80), and (3) express a desire to de- crease the role and powers of the Security Council (.44). Possible factor name: “Security Council and Economic and Social Council Satisfaction Factor.” (Variance accounted for =6 per cent). A high scoring respondent on the third factor tends to: (1) feel that changes are improbable in respect to the understandings and agreements to allocate seats or positions for the International Court of Justice (.88), Main Committees (.88), General Committee (.85), Secretariat (.84), and ECOSOC (.51), (2) feel that changes are improbable in respect to the Charter membership ar- rangements for the International Court of Justice (.79), Secre- tariat (.78), General Assembly (.58), and ECOSOC (.42), and (3) express a desire to decrease the role and powers of the General Committee (.31) and Main Committees (.30). Possible factor name: “Membership Arrangements Probability Factor.” (Variance accounted for=11.3 per cent). A high scoring respondent on the fourth factor tends to: (1) see the Security Council decreasing in importance now (.73) and in the future (.73), and (2) express dissatisfaction with member- ship arrangements of the General Assembly (.77). Possible factor name: “Security Council Importance Factor.” (Variance accounted for=2.8 per cent). A high scoring respondent on the fifth factor tends to: (1) ex- press dissatisfaction with the understandings and agreements to allocate seats and positions on the General Committee (.72) and Main Committees (.41), (2) express dissatisfaction with the role and performance of the International Court of Justice (.89) and Secretariat (.36), (3) express a desire to decrease the role and performance of the International Court of Justice (.32), and (4) express dissatisfaction with the membership arrangements of the International Court of Justice (.33). Possible factor name: “Un- derstandings and Role Satisfaction Factor.” (Variance accounted for=4.6 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor VI tends to: (1) view the Secretariat (.74) and the International Court of Justice (.33) as increasing in importance now, (2) view the Secretariat (.85), In- VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 191 ternational Court of Justice (.72), General Committee (.48), Main Committees (.46), Security Council (.37), and ECOSOC (.36) as increasing in importance in the future, and (3) express a desire to increase the role and powers of the Security Council (.65), Secre- tariat (.52), and ECOSOC (.32). Possible factor name: “Impor- tance Factor.” ( Variance accounted for = 7.3 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor VII tends to: (1) express dissatisfaction with the voting systems of the Main Committees (.81), General Assembly (.76), International Court of Justice (.62), and ECOSOC (.33), (2) express dissatisfaction with the understandings to allocate positions on the Security Council (.52), and (3) express a desire to decrease the role and powers of the General Assembly (.37). Possible factor name: “Voting System Satisfaction Factor.” (Variance accounted for=5.6 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor VIII tends to: (1) view changes in the Charter membership arrangements of the Security Council (.79), Economic and Social Council (.62), and General Assembly (.51) as improbable, (2) view the Security Council as decreasing in importance in the future (.55), (3) express dissatis- faction with the role and performance of the Security Council (.38), (4) view changes in the understandings to allocate seats in the Security Council as improbable (.31), and (5) express dis- satisfaction with the voting system of the General Assembly (.30). Possible factor name: “Charter Membership Probability Factor.” (Variance accounted for=5.2 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor IX tends to: (1) view ECOSOC (.81) and the International Court of Justice (.48) as decreasing in importance now, (2) view ECOSOC as decreasing in importance for the future (.79), (3) express dissatisfaction with the voting system of the International Court of Justice (.52), and (4) express dissatisfaction with the role and performance of the Security Council (.46) and the Economic and Social Council (.43). Possible factor name: “Economic and Social Council Im- portance Factor.’ (Variance accounted for=5.5 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor X tends to: (1) express dissatisfaction with the understandings to allocate seats and posi- tions on the International Court of Justice (.86), Secretariat (.79), and ECOSOC (.36), (2) express dissatisfaction with the member- ship arrangements of the Secretariat (.79) and the International 192, QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Court of Justice (.74), (3) view the Security Council as decreas- ing in importance now (.30) and in the future (.31), and (4) ex- press dissatisfaction with the role and performance of the Security Council (.32). Possible factor name: “Membership Satisfaction Factor.” (Variance accounted for=6.9 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor XI tends to be dissatisfied with the understandings and agreements to allocate seats and po- sitions on the Security Council (.77), Economic and Social Council (.73), Main Committees (.54), and General Committee (.34). Possible factor name: “Understandings Satisfaction Factor.” ( Vari- ance accounted for=4.6 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor XII tends to: (1) express satisfaction with the role and performance of the General Commit- tee (.79), General Assembly (.72), Main Committees (.71), Secre- tariat (.70), and Economic and Social Council (.59), (2) express a desire to increase the role and powers of the General Assembly (.47), and (3) express satisfaction with the understandings to allo- cate seats and positions on the Main Committees (.52). Possible factor name: “Role and Performance Satisfaction Factor.” (Vari- ance accounted for=8.1 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor XIII tends to view changes in the understandings and agreements to allocate seats and posi- tions on the Security Council (.75) and Economic and Social Council (.61) as probable. Possible factor name: “Security Council and Economic and Social Council Understandings Factor.” ( Vari- ance accounted for=3.8 per cent). A high scoring respondent on Factor XIV tends to express a desire to decrease the role and powers of the International Court of Justice (.64), Economic and Social Council (.67), Secretariat (.65), General Committee (.49), Main Committees (.49), and General Assembly (.32). Possible factor name: “Importance De- _ sire Factor.’ (Variance accounted for=5.6 per cent). It can be seen that in every case high or low factor scores tend to be generated by either consistently “positive” and/or “dynamic” or consistently “negative” and/or “static” attitudes. That is, in no case is a high or low factor score generated partially from “posi- tive’ and/or “dynamic” attitudes and partially from “negative” and/or “static” attitudes. The factor dimensions can be summa- rized in terms of high factor scores, as follows: Factor I=negative, VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 193 Factor Il=negative, Factor II]=static and negative, Factor IV= negative, Factor V=negative, Factor VI=positive, Factor VII= negative, Factor VII[=negative and static, Factor [X=negative, Factor X=negative, Factor XIl=negative, Factor XII =positive, Factor XI1]]=dynamic, and Factor XIV = negative. Each of the factors, then, can be viewed as an attitude scale, with each deviation from “0” (factor scores are expressed in stand- ard score form) expressing the degree of “positive” and/or dy- namic’ or “negative” and/or “static” orientation on each dimension. A respondent having the highest score on Factors I, I, III, IV, V, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, and XIV, and the lowest scores on Factors VI, XII, and XIII, would be said to evidence the most negative- static attitudes. Conversely, a respondent scoring lowest on Factors elie y, Vv, Vil, VIIL IX, X, XI, and XIV, and highest on Factors VI, XII, and XIII, would evidence the most positive-dy- namic attitudes. To summarize, the 55 original variables of the questionnaire have been condensed into 14 factor dimensions which are inde- pendent of one another in the sense that the factor score location on one cannot be used to predict the factor score location on an- other. Each of the factor dimensions is “pure” in the sense that high or low factor scores are defined in terms of either positive and/or dynamic responses or negative and/or static responses. GENERATING PREDICTORS To generate suitable predictors for the canonical correlation it was decided to factor analyze a large number of variables of po- tential relevance concerning the respondents’ home states. Thirty-four of the independent variables considered were taken from Banks and Textor’s (1963) Cross Polity Survey. These were: Size of Country, Population of Country, Population Density, Popu- lation Growth Rate, Agricultural Population, Gross National Prod- uct, Per Capita Gross National Product, International Financial Status, Economic Development Status, Literacy Rate, Freedom of the Press, Newspaper Circulation, Religious Homogeneity, Racial Heterogeneity, Linguistic Homogeneity, Date of Independence, Westernization, Political Modernization, Systems Style, Constitu- tional Status, Representative Character, Freedom of Group Oppo- sition, Political Inculturation, Interest Articulation by Associational 194 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Groups, Interest Articulation by Institutional Groups, Interest Ar- ticulation by Non-Associational Groups, Interest Articulation by Parties, Party System, Political Leadership, Status of Legislature, Status of Executive, Character of Bureaucracy, Participation by Military, Communist Bloc. Fourteen additional variables derived from other resources were: United Nations Delegations Size, Time in the United Na- tions, IGO Membership, Alliance, Size of Military, Distance from U.S., Distance from U.S.S.R., Distance from China, Percent of Ur- banization, Ratio of People Fer School, United Nations Emergency Force Pay, United Nations Pay, Import from U.S., Export to U.S. Each respondent's state was coded on the first 34 variables in terms suggested by the Cross Polity Survey. For example, in re- spect to the variable of population, Banks and Textor give four gradations: very large (100 million and above), large (17-99.9 million), medium 6-16.9 million), and small (under 6 million). Respondents’ states falling in the very large category were coded 1, those in the large category 2, and so forth. Rank numbers were then assigned to each state on each variable following procedures similar to those outlined by Alker and Russett (1965, pp. 30-31) in World Politics and the General Assembly. Thus, all rank num- bers ranged from 1-68, with the average rank scores assigned in case of ties. The rank numbers for the rest of the variables were based on cardinal magnitude, i.e., the number of IGO memberships, except for Alliance, which was coded=U.S. ally, 2=neutral, 3= U.S.S.R. ally. Once rank numbers were determined, all possible correlations between the variables were calculated and the result- ing intercorrelation matrix was factor analyzed. The original 48 variables reduced to 11 factors rotated, accounting for 83 per cent of the total original variance. The analysis may be summarized as before. Factor I: High Newspaper Circulation (.88), High Literacy Rate (.86), High Percent Urban (.83), Westernized (.83), Low Agricultural Population (.79), Negligible Interest Articulation by Non-Associational Groups (.78), Modern Bureaucracy (.77), Sig- nificant Interest Articulation by Associational Groups (.70), Po- litically Modern (.60), High Gross National Product (.55), High International Financial Status (.54), Old (.43), High Political In- culturation (.43), Large Military (.43), High United Nations Pay VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 195 (.43), Low Ratio of People per School (.42), Linguistic Homo- geneity (.40), Representative System (.40), Effective Legislature (.39), Many IGO Memberships (.38), Long Time in UN (.38), Significant Interest Articulation by Parties (.37), Low Distance from U.S. (.34), Non-Communist (.30), Religious Homogeneity (.30), and High United Nations Emergency Force Pay (.30). Possible name: “Development.” (Variance accounted for=21.6 per cent). Factor II: No Effective Constitution Limitations (.87), High Censorship (.87), Ineffective Legislature (.83), Opposition Groups Not Tolerated (.82), Not Representative System (.81), Strong Executive (.79), Elitist Political Leadership (.77), Participation by Military (.72), Significant Interest Articulation by Institutional Groups (.64), Negligible Interest Articulation by Associational Groups (.47), Mobilized System Style (.47), Communist Bloc (.41), Traditional Bureaucracy (.37), Communist Alliance (.31). Possible name: “Authoritarianism.” (Variance accounted for=16.7 per cent). Factor III: Large Import from U.S. (.86), Large Export to U.S. (.77), Allied with West (.72), Linguistic Homogeneity (.55), Re- ligious Homogeneity (.43), Non-Communist (.42), Long Distance from U.S.S.R. (.40), Long Time in UN (.32), High Population Growth Rate (.30). Possible name: “U.S. Relations.” (Variance accounted for=7.8 per cent). Factor IV: Big Population (.87), High International Financial Status (.73), Big Gross National Product (.72), Big Country (.67), Large Military (.66), Large United Nations Delegation Size (.59), High United Nations Pay (.53), Long Time in UN (.33), Signifi- cant Interest Articulation by Institutional Groups (.31), Politically Modern (.31), High Economic Development Status (.30), Many IGO Memberships (.30). Possible name: “Bigness.” (Variance accounted for=9.3 per cent). Factor V: One Party System (.76), Mobilized System Style (.65), High Political Inculturation (.54), Negligible Interest Ar- ticulation by Parties (.35), Communist Bloc (.31). Possible name: “Party-Mobilization.” (Variance accounted for = 4.4 per cent). Factor VI: Low Population Density (.87), Big Country (.59). Possible name: “Density.” (Variance accounted for =3.6 per cent). 196 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Factor VII: High Population Growth Rate (.76), Non-Elitist Political Leadership (.33), Linguistic Heterogeneity (.32), Small IGO Memberships (.30). Possible name: “Growth Rate.” (Vari- ance accounted for=3.2 per cent). Factor VIII: Racial Heterogeneity (.80), Short Time in UN (.43). Possible name: “Racial.” (Variance accounted for=3 per cent ). Factor IX: Low Distance from U.S. (.75), Low Ratio of People per School (.58), Old (.47), Many I1GO Memberships (.44), Po- litically Modern (.39), Long Time in UN (.44), Religious Homo- geneity (.35), Non-Communist (.35). Possible name: “U.S. Dis- tance.” (Variance accounted for=5.2 per cent). Factor X: High United Nations Emergency Force Payment (.68), High United Nations Payment (.44), Limited Interest Ar- ticultion by Institutional Groups (.31). Possible name: “UN Pay.” (Variance accounted for=3 per cent). Factor XI: Distance from China (.81), Long Distance from U.S.S.R. (.68), Low Political Inculturation (.37). Possible name: “Distance. (Variance accounted for = 4.4 per cent). Again, those possessing the highest factor scores tend to possess the characteristics indicated after the loadings. Thus, there is a tendency for those standing highest on Factor I to have a high newspaper circulation, a high per capita gross national product, a high literacy rate, etc. Thus, a state scoring high on Factor I but low on Factor II tends to be a developed-democratic state, a state scoring high on both factors tends to be a developed-non-demo- cratic state, and a subject scoring in the middle of both factors tends to be a moderately developed, semi-democratic state, etc. Combinations of scores between other factors may be similarly in- terpreted. To summarize, the factor analysis of the national attributes of the respondents’ states has produced eleven predictors, each of which is orthogonal to the others. Variance explained by one pre- dictor, then, will not also be explained by another predictor. For example, if it is found that both the Development and Authori- tarianism dimensions are related to the questionnaire dimensions, we know that both predictors have unique explanatory power. VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 197 RELATIONSHIP OF PREDICTORS TO (QUESTIONNAIRE DIMENSIONS One way to answer the question of the relationship of the re- spondents’ state’s characteristics to the questionnaire responses is to proceed in the manner indicated earlier in the study entitled, “National Attributes as Predictors of Delegate Attitudes at the United Nations.” As explained above, that study related each in- dependent factor dimension to questionnaire items one at a time. The advantage of this method is microscopic clearness in showing what is related to what, and the study generated statements such as, “The higher a respondent’s home state score on the Develop- ment Factor, the stronger the respondent’s satisfaction with the voting procedures of the Security Council.” The disadvantage of this technique, however, is low predictive power. Correlations tended to be in the modest .30-.40 range. This meant that usually only 9-16 per cent of the variance of a dependent variable was “explained” by any one independent variable. Typically, then, approximately 80-90 per cent of the dependent variance remained unexplained. Another possible mode of analysis is to relate the independent and dependent factor dimensions to one another using simple cor- relations. The advantage here lies in having fewer variables, al- though the clear microscopic character of the earlier analysis is lost. Statements generated by such technique would take the form, “The higher a respondent’s score on the Development Factor, the higher his score tends to be on the General Assembly Importance Factor, etc. The disadvantage of this technique, of course, is that correlations still tend to remain modest and the confidence in a predictive statement weak. Still another possibility is to run a multiple regression analysis of independent factors against each of the dependent factors taken individually. This analysis would produce statements such as, “The higher a respondent's home state is on the Development Factor and Authoritarianism Factor, but the lower it is on the Density Factor, the higher the respondent tends to score on the General Assembly Importance Factor.” The advantage of this technique is to increase the size of the correlation and, therefore, the accuracy of a prediction, by considering numerous independent variables, but the disadvantage is the ambiguity of assessing the overall importance of the predictors because the weights assigned 198 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to the predictors may vary and probably will vary from dependent variable to dependent variable. The most effective way of answering the basic research question of the relationship of the independents to the dependents is to apply the technique of canonical correlation (Hotelling, 1935, 1936; Anderson, 1958; Horst, 1961; Thompson, 1947; Clyde, 1966). Simply put, the canonical technique weights each variable in two sets to maximize the correlation of two sets of scores predicted by them, one from one set and one from the other. In terms of this study, then, the canonical technique answers the question of what weights must be assigned to the Development, Authoritarianism, U.S. Relations, etc. factor dimension scores to predict a set of scores that will correlate highest with a set of scores predicted by the dependent questionnaire factor dimension scores weighted using the same criterion of maximum correlation. Thus, the canonical technique can be conceived as a two-way multiple re- gression scheme with each of two sets of variables weighted to produce a maximal correlation between the values generated from the two sets. The weights assigned to the variables, then, tell us the importance of each variable in generating the overall relation- ship. This in turn answers our research question as to what is im- portant and what is not important in overall terms, something that remains ambiguous when an ordinary multiple regression scheme is used taking the dependents one at a time. Further, and most important, the canonical technique produces extremely high cor- relations so that the bulk of the variance in the predicted values is accounted for. The question might be raised here, why not apply the canonical technique to the original variables, that is, before factor analysis? The answer is simple. As in an ordinary multiple regression analy- sis, if an intercorrelation exists between variables, “weights” cannot be directly interpreted. This is because variance that could have been explained by a variable may already have been explained by another variable. Another advantage of factor analyzing before the canonical technique is that the factor analysis itself tends to produce “normal scores” in the sense that factor scores tend toward normality. The reason for this is that many items are involved in producing each factor score and it is unlikely that any one subject will score either VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 199 consistently high or low on all items. The cumulative effect of using many scores to define one score, then, is to move most scores toward the middle, i.e., between —1.5 and +1.5 in standard score form. Thus, tests of significance based on the assumption of normal distributions become more meaningful, after factor analysis, if the factor scores are also assumed to meet the other assumptions under- lying the tests of significance. In regard to canonical technique, however, although only one set of weights is likely to produce exactly the same maximal corre- lation (i.e., such as .83), nevertheless, different weighting schemes may produce more than one statistically significant correlation. When additional correlations are produced through different weighting schemes, they are subjected to the restriction that the subjects X scores (the scores generated from the independent set) be orthogonal to all previously calculated X scores and that Y scores (the scores generated from the dependent set) be ortho- gonal to all previously calculated Y scores. That is, if two signifi- cant canonical correlations are produced, the X scores on the second canonical correlation will have a zero correlation with the X scores of the first canonical correlation and the same will be true of the second canonical Y scores relative to the first. In the present study, two significant canonical correlations were calculated that weighted the factor scores. First correlation weights of independent factors were as follows: Development .336, Authoritarianism —.134, U.S. Relations .292, Bigness —.083, Party- Mobilization —.655, Density —.019, Growth Rate —.445, Racial —.067, U.S. Distance —.167, UN Pay .235, and Distance —.049. First correlation weights of dependent factors were as follows: General Assembly Importance .325, Security Council and Eco- nomic and Social Council Satisfaction —.191, Membership Ar- rangements Probability .202, Security Council Importance —.200, Understandings and Role Satisfaction —.184, Importance —.116, Voting System Satisfaction .331, Charter Membership Probability .211, Economic and Social Council Importance .190, Membership Satisfaction —.448, Understandings Satisfaction —.305, Role and Performance Satisfaction .216, Security Council and Economic and Social Council Understandings —.459, and Importance Desire —.027. (Correlation .86, P less than .0002). Second correlation weights of independent factors were as 200 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES follows: Development -—.653, Authoritarianism .189, U.S. Relations .092, Bigness —.057, Party-Mobilization —.096, Density .292, Growth Rate —.200, Racial .294, U.S. Distance —.364, UN Pay —.099, and Distance .373. Second correlation weights of dependent factors were as fol- lows: General Assembly Importance —.556, Security Council and Economic and Social Council Satisfaction .323, Membership Ar- rangements Probability —.422, Security Council Importance —.296, Understandings and Role Satisfaction -—.327, Importance .022, Voting System Satisfaction .229, Charter Membership Proba- bility .046, Economic and Social Council Importance —.095, Mem- bership Satisfaction —.090, Understandings Satisfaction —.242, Role and Performance Satisfaction .163, Security Council and Eco- nomic and Social Council Understandings .035, and Importance Desire —.301. (Correlation .84, P less than .0096). In the first correlation, Factors I, V, VII, and IX, concerning Development, Party-Mobilization, Growth Rate, and U.S. Rela- tions, weigh most heavily on the independent side, while Factors I, VII, X, XI, and XIII, concerning General Assembly Importance, Voting System Satisfaction, Membership Satisfaction, Understand- ings Satisfaction, and Security Council and Economic and Social Council Understandings, weigh most heavily on the dependent side. High canonical X scores, then, define respondents whose home states tend to have the characteristics of: (1) multiple to non-party political systems which are not highly mobilized, (2) low growth rates, (3) considerable development, and (4) close U.S. relations. Low canonical X scoring states, of course, tend to have the opposite characteristics, i.e., have one party-mobilized systems, high growth rates, etc. It should be apparent that it is possible for one state to be high on one dimension and high on another, while still another state is high on one dimension but low on another. Thus, for ex- ample, we know that there are developed states with close U.S. relations and developed states with far U.S. relations. Just con- sidering these two variables, however, holding all others constant, the developed state with close U.S. relations will have a higher X score than one which has far U.S. relations. Because there is a very strong association between the canoni- cal X scores and the canonical Y scores, it is now possible to pre- VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 201 dict the likely dependent response patterns of high X scorers. The highest X scorers, then, should tend to have static perceptions in respect to Security Council and ECOSOC Understandings, posi- tive feelings and perceptions in respect to Membership Satistac- tion, negative feelings and desires in respect to Voting System Satisfaction, negative feelings and desires in respect to General Assembly Importance and positive feelings in respect to Under- standings Satisfaction. In short, they should tend to have positive feelings in respect to certain membership arrangements and un- derstandings to allocate seats and positions but negative or static feelings on many other things, particularly concerning certain vot- ing systems and the General Assembly Importance Factor. An ex- amination of the actual high scorers and their dependent patterns verifies these statements. Thus, the seven highest X scorers all have multiple party systems, low growth rates, are developed, and have close ties with the United States. The actual dependent score pattern of the highest X scorer (a European state) was —1.13 on Factor XIII, —.68 on Factor X, .75 on Factor VII, .78 on Factor I, and —.41 on Factor XI. (A perfect prediction in terms of the high-low character of the pattern). The second highest X scorer Ewupnouropean state) had —21, —22 13) 67, and —.18 on the above mentioned factors respectively. (Another perfect pre- diction). The third highest (A European state) had —1.18, —.75, —.44, 1.17, and —1.17. (A nearly perfect prediction, miss- ing on Factor VII). Thus, the weights in the canonical correla- tion, with a high degree of accuracy, describe the state character- istics of those who, in fact, have the high-low response patterns necessary to produce high canonical Y scores. Further, the state characteristics are ordered in respect to their explanatory import- ance. Thus, Party Mobilization is a better predictor than Growth Rate, Growth Rate is better than Development, etc. The second significant canonical correlation can be understood in the same terms. In this case, underdevelopment, long distance from the U.S.S.R. and China, and long distance from the U.S., are the primary defining characieristics of those having high canonical X scores. High X scorers in turn tend to have positive perceptions, desires and feelings in respect to the General Assembly Import- ance Factor, dynamic perceptions and positive desires in respect to the Membership Arrangement Probability Factor, positive feel- ings and desires in respect to the Security Council and Economic 202 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and Social Council Satisfaction Factor, positive desires in respect to the Importance Desire Factor, and positive perceptions and feelings in respect to the Security Council Importance Factor. Again, the indicated weights perfectly describe the actual charac- teristics of the high X scorers. That is, the eleven highest X scorers came from underdeveloped states in Africa, the Middle East and Asia. Also, the predicted pattern of dependent scores is verified. Thus, the highest X scorer had a dependent pattern of —l.1, —.16, —.63, 1.6, —-.33, and —1.16 on Factors I, III, V, I, XIV, and IV respectively, etc. It is interesting to note, in connection with this second correla- tion, that the factor dimension accounting for the most variance on the independent side, Development (21 per cent), receives the heaviest weight in defining X scores, and the questionnaire factors accounting for the most variance on the dependent side, General Assembly Importance (11 per cent) and Membership Arrange- ments Probability (11 per cent), also have the heaviest weights in defining the canonical Y scores. This stands in contrast to the first canonical correlation where Party-Mobilization on the independent side only accounted for 4.4 per cent of the original independent variance, and Charter Membership Probability with the heaviest weight on the dependent side only accounted for 3.6 per cent of the original questionnaire variance. Thus, in terms of the amount of the original variances accounted for, the second canonical corre- lation seems to be more important, although less statistically signif- cant than the first canonical correlation. That is, it relates factors that have more to do with the original variance present in both sets of data. The first canonical correlation tells us that there is an ex- tremely good fit between certain predictors and certain portions of the questionnaire while the second tells us that there is an almost as good fit between other predictors and other portions of the questionnaire. The only salient predictors repeated in the two correlations on the independent side is Development, and the only factor repeated on the independent side is General Assembly Importance. The canonical technique is also telling us that there is no other way of weighting the variables to produce a significant correlation, if the weighting scheme operates under the orthogonal limitation discussed above. From this it can be concluded that VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 203 TABLE 1 Summary of relationships in national attribute study Predictor Negative Pe istatie Positive Dynamic Development 18 8 4 0 = 30 Distance I 0 6 6 = 13 Party-Mobilization fa 0 2 Q == Il U.S. Distance - il 4 OF 9 Density 0 0 9 0O=— 9 Authoritarianism 1 0 5 0=— 6 Bigness if 3 2, 0 6 U.S. Relations 1 2 1 O= 4 Growth Rate 4 0 0 O= 4 UN Pay 0 0 3 0=— 3 Racial Heterogeneity 1 1 0 1= 38 38 15 36 qe In that 605 correlations were considered (55 questionnaire items, 11 pre- dictors), it is likely that at least 30 of the above correlations were generated by random variation because of the decision to operate at the .05 level. certain predictors have little explanatory relevance on the inde- pendent side and certain questionnaire factors are not well ex- plained on the dependent side. Thus, Authoritarianism, Bigness, Density, Racial, and UN Pay fail to have discussable weight in either correlation and the same is true of Importance, Charter Membership Probability, Economic and Social Council Importance, and Role and Performance Satisfaction on the dependent side. These results may be compared with those of the study, cited above, which based the analysis on the sheer frequency with which a predictor associated at a significant level with the questionnaire items. The results of that study are summarized in Table 1. This table may be understood in the following terms: Develop- ment was associated 30 times at a significant level with question- 204 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES naire items. High development scores predicted negative re- sponses 18 times, static responses § times, positive responses 4 times, and dynamic responses 0 times. It can be seen that there is considerable agreement between the two forms of analysis in respect to picking out the most important predictors. What the canonical is tell us, however, that the one-by-one analysis cannot tell us, is that a particular kind of weighting of the independent variables can produce an extremely strong relationship between certain variables and the questionnaire data (in factor form) if the latter is also weighted. Thus, for example, the predictive value of Party-Mobilization is partially hidden when the focus of attention is “microscopic.” Interpretation, in terms of a post hoc theoretical explanation of these findings, is somewhat difficult. However, in both canonical correlations high Y scores are defined primarily in terms of nega- tive/static or positive/dynamic terms, although this is much more clearly the case with the second canonical correlation compared to the first. Why the Party-Mobilization Factor should have so much weight in the first correlation is obscure. The same can also be said for the Growth Rate Factor. Perhaps third intervening variables not considered by this study could be relevant here. It seems unwise to attempt to formulate “explanations” until replica- tion and additional evidence is acquired. The persistence of the Development dimension and its heavy weight in the second canon- ical correlation, however, does allow comment. Because of the relative purity of the Y scores in the second correlation, in the sense of being defined primarily, if low, in terms of positive and dynamic attitude dimensions (which themselves are “pure”) and, if high, in negative/static terms, it seems proper to conclude that delegates from underdeveloped states, particularly those some dis- tance from the U.S.S.R., China, and the United States, have the most positive and dynamic attitudes in the organization, that is, they tend to have the highest Y scores. Considering moderately high canonical Y scorers, we would expect delegates from under- developed states to predominate, but their countries’ geographic distance should be closer to the three power centers indicated. As we move to the moderate Y scorers, we would expect dele- gates from moderately developed and developed states to begin appearing, and as we move to the lowest Y scorers, we would ex- VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 205 pect delegates from developed states, particularly ones whose countries are close to the U.S.S.R., China, and the United States to appear with the greatest frequency. An extensive visual check of the actual Y scores confirms this hypothesis. Thus, economic de- velopment conditioned by geographical considerations seems to emerge as an extremely important predictor in accounting for variance in the questionnaire factors. The fact that the General Assembly Importance Factor re- ceives the heaviest weight in defining the second canonical Y scores is not overly surprising. After all, it is the General Assembly which has undergone the most change through the infusion of un- derdeveloped states. The possible alienation of the developed delegates concerning matters which define this dimension are quite understandable. It will be recalled that the variables loading on this factor dimension concern primarily the importance of the Gen- eral Committee, Main Committees, and the General Assembly now and in the future, desires concerning their roles and powers, and satisfaction with their role and performance. The weight of ques- tionnaire Factor III, concerning Membership Arrangements Prob- ability, also seems explainable. We would expect those that have the most to gain through change to view change as more probable than those that have the least to gain from change. After all, it has been the inflexibilities in the past (before 1966), in respect to understandings and agreements, which has prevented many of the new states from gaining what they may consider to be their fair share of seats on certain organs. The interpretation of the remaining factors, where positive ex- pressions are expected, seem interpretable in basically the same terms, particularly Factor XIV concerning the desire to increase the role and powers of certain organs. This seems natural for those who have become more “dominant” in respect to such organs. The only expression of negative feelings and desires, Factor II, seems to concern the Charter provisions and voting procedures of the Economic and Social Council and Security Council. Recently, of course, these matters have been redressed in favor of the under- developed states by formal Charter amendments. (It would be interesting to see if variables on this factor still loading as they do, or these variables emerge as a distinct factor, since the recent amendments ). 206 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES It is apparent that a great deal of the relevance of these find- ings hinges upon the “stability” of such patterns. That is, is it possible that a sample at one point in time would weight heavily the predictors that we have found here, while, in another point in time, other predictors, i.e., Authoritarianism, might emerge as im- portant? Although the questionnaire used has been estimated to have a high degree of reliability, nevertheless this is based on in- ternal consistency of delegate responses at one point in time. There is no way of knowing whether at future points in time a still “re- liable” questionnaire might not produce a very different set of factors and relationships with the predictors. Generalizations and conclusions, then, based upon these relationships, must be related to the problem of stability. At present, work is being done to make this kind of assessment by comparing a 1962 sample (Vin- cent, 1965) analyzed in terms of factors and predictors with the present study and a sample to be collected during 1967-68. The 1962 sample data, although thus far analyzed in completely differ- ent terms, did reveal the importance of economic development in predicting attitude differences between caucusing groups. Unfor- tunately, economic development was the only variable considered in the study on the hunch that it might be the most fruitful. Therefore, no generalizations were made on the potential rele- vance of other variables, such as Authoritarianism. Tentatively, however, it may be asserted, awaiting the outcome of a compara- tive study, that “stability” of attitudes is suggested because of the repeated and persistent explanatory power of economic develop- ment. In the “National Attribute Study,” cited above, an effort to explain the importance of economic development took the follow- ing form: States differ in their economic development. States with higher economic development generally have high capa- bilities to supply human needs, regardless of international organizational affiliation, than states with lower economic development. International organizations may be consid- ered devices which augment, in a limited way, the capa- bilities of states. Because the capabilities of developed states are already high, the contributions of international organizations to their capabilities are generally less signifi- cant, as a fraction of total capabilities, than in the case of VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 207 states with lower development. Because statesmen may value an augmentation of capabilities to the extent that it is a “significant increment” representatives from underde- veloped states may generally value international organiza- tions more than developed states. This may be particularly true if representatives from underdeveloped states are in a position to have a considerable voice in the organization (i.e., have a majority where majority rule is used). Thus, attitudinal differences might be expected among statesmen, toward the United Nations, related to their home states’ economic development. One might expect, for example, that representatives from economically underdeveloped states would be more satisfied, see things in more dynamic terms, and be more inclined to bolster the organization than representatives from developed states. (Vincent, 1968, p. 930). This study naturally reaffirms this possibility. In addition, however, it suggests the potential relevance of such dimensions as Party-Mobilization and Growth Rate as important predictors of certain kinds of attitude dimensions. Most importantly, it indi- cates that certain predictors, no matter how weighted, cannot do a good job of accounting for the questionnaire factor dimensions. That is, it has been shown that with one kind of weighting scheme it is possible to transform U.S. Relations and Growth Rate into extremely good predictors, even though, on a one-to-one basis, shown in the companion study, they did not fare very well. It is not possible, however, to weight certain factors, that one might expect as having considerable attitudinal relevance, such as UN Pay, Authoritarianism, and Bigness, and transform them into effi- cient predictors. Of particular interest here is the fact that Authoritarianism falls flat on its face as an effective predictor. One might have thought that the very character of the United Nations system would be incompatible with authoritarianism and, there- fore, authoritarianism would be associated with negativism. No support for this proposition is found here. SUMMARY When United Nations delegates were asked to mark a ques- tionnaire, concerning the principal organs of the United Nations, 208 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES different patterns emerged within a cooperative group of dele- gates. If the reactions are categorized as either “negative” or “positive’ and/or “dynamic” or “static,” two weighting schemes emerged, employing the devices of factor analysis and canonical correlation, that relate certain independent indices to the atti- tudes. One of these ways, although more statistically significant, seemed less interpretable. It had Party-Mobilization, Growth Rate, U.S. Relations, and Development as primary predictors. A second way, less statisticaily significant but more interpretable, identified economic development and two distance factors as the primary predictors. The importance of economic development as a predictor appears consistent with previous work done on United Nations delegates’ attitudes and also with certain other impres- sionistic studies. If analogous behavioral patterns (positive-nega- tive, etc.) exist and persist in the “real world” outside the world of questionnaire behavior, then an important element relating to the interaction process within the United Nations has been partially identified and should be subjected to further examination. It would be expected, on the basis of these findings, that delegates from more developed states, using their “influence potential,’ may provide a check or damper upon the development of United Na- tions’ major organ-related developments, functions and activities. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported by the Political Science Department of Florida Atlantic University and by the Florida Atlantic Research Committee out of NSF Institutional Grant Monies. LITERATURE CITED ALKER, HAywarp R. Jr., AND Bruce M. Russetr. 1965. World politics in the General Assembly. Yale University Press, New Haven. ANDERSON, T. W. 1958. An introduction to multivariate statistical analysis. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Chapter 12. Banks, ARTHUR S., AND Ropertr B. Textor. 1963. A cross polity survey. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge. CiypE, DEAN J., Er AL. 1966. Multivariate statistical programs. Univer- sity of Miami, Coral Gables. Guass, GENE V., AND THoMas QO. Macurre. 1966. Abuses of factor scores, American Educational Research Journal, vol. 3, pp. 297-304. VINCENT: Attitudes at the United Nations 2.09 Horst, Paut. 1961. Relations among sets of measures, Psychometrika, vol. 26, pp. 129-149. Hotre.tiinc, Harotp. 1935. The most predictable criterion, Jour. Educa- tional Psychology, vol. 26, pp. 139-142. 1936. Relations between two sets of variates, Biometrika, vol. 28, pp. 321-377. THomeson, G. 1947. The maximum correlation of two weighted batteries, British Jour. Psychology: Statistical Section, Part 1, pp. 27-34. VINCENT, JAcK E. 1965. The caucusing groups of the United Nations: An examination of their attitudes toward the Organization. Oklahoma State University Press, Stillwater. 1968. National attributes as predictors of delegate attitudes at the United Nations, Amer. Political Sci. Review, vol. 62, pp. 916-931. ——. 1969. Factor analysis as a research tool in international relations: some problem areas, some suggestions and an application, Proc. Sixty- Fifth Annual Meeting, Amer. Political Sci. Assn., New York. Department of Political Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33432. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969( 1970) Some Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Florida KENNETH E. CONWAY THE aquatic Hyphomycetes are imperfect fungi found in the form-family Moniliaceae because of their hyaline conidia and conidiophores. These organisms occur in freshwater streams that are typically fast moving and well oxygenated. They have also been found in polluted streams (Conway, 1968). Aquatic Hy- phomycetes are usually found in association with well decayed leaves, although they have been found on other substrate ( Nils- son, 1964). The aquatic Hyphomycetes were first described in 1893 by De- Wildeman. However, active research concerning these organisms did not begin until Ingold (1942) published his first of many pa- pers on the fungal flora of England. Since Ingold’s first report most of the world’s land masses have been explored: Africa (Dixon, 1959; Ingold, 1956), Asia ( Tubaki, 1957, 1965), Australia (Cowling and Waid, 1963), Canada (Ingold, 1960), Europe (Banhegyi, 1962; Ingold, 1949; Fenton, 1950; Nilsson, 1964), South America (Nilsson, 1962), and the United States of America (Baxter, 1961, 1964; Conway, 1968; Crane, 1968; Petersen, 1960, 1962, 1963a, 1963b; Ranzoni, 1953: and Umphlett, 1959). Published reports from the United States have been concerned principally with the northeastern and western United States. This is the first report of aquatic Hyphomycetes from Florida. TAXONOMIC CRITERIA Classification of aquatic Hyphomycetes is based primarily on conidial development and secondarily on conidial form. The two main types of development are the aleuriosporeae and the phialosporae. These are defined as: 1) Aleuriosporae: A conidium is delimited from its conidio- phore early in its development. It is termed an aleurio- spore or terminal chlamydospore. The aleuriospore arises as a modified terminal portion of a hypha. 2) Phialosporae: A conidium borne on a phialide is termed a phialospore. A phialide is a unicellular flask shaped struc- Conway: Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Florida 211 ture with a comparatively enlarged venter and a neck-like portion which bears the conidium at or within the tip. The phialospore is not delimited from the phialide until maturity. Essentially three forms exist in the aquatic Hyphomycetes: ovoid, sigmoid and tetraradiate. It was thought at first that these forms represented evolution of increasing efficiency of floatation and entanglement. However, Webster (1959a) has demonstrated that all settle at approximately the same rate, but that the tetraradiate form is more efficient in entanglement. Although these organisms are Fungi imperfecti, five aquatic Hyphomycetes have been found to possess a sexual stage (Ranzoni, 1956; Tubaki, 1966; Webster, 1959b, 1961, 1965). Anguillospora crassa Ingold represents the conidial stage of a species of Molli- sia, Flagellospora penicillioides Ingold and Heliscus lugdunensis Saccardo and Therry represent conidial stages of Nectria, Dacty- lella aquatica represents a conidial stage of Massarina aquatica Webster, and Varicosporium sp. represents a conidial stage of Hymenoscyphus. MATERIAL AND METHODS Aquatic Hyphomycetes are best observed from well decayed leaves. These leaves can be collected from the streams along with a water and foam sample. The foam acts as a natural trap for conidia and gives a fairly accurate indication of the fungal flora of the stream. The samples are brought back to the laboratory and observed with the 10X lens of a microscope. The sample is placed in an open petri plate and conidia can be seen either floating on the surface of the water or on the bottom of the plate. If cultures are desired, conidia can be picked up using a small diameter pas- teur pipette. The conidia are then plated on 1 per cent water agar and allowed to germinate for 24 hours. These must then be retransferred or they will become over-grown by bacteria and other fungi. The cultures will not produce typical conidia until] they are re-immersed in water. Therefore, for verification of the isolation sections of the colony are put back into water contained in a sterile petri plate. If the isolation was successful, typical aquatic conidia will develop in three to five days. 212 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Material for this investigation has been taken principally from the streams occurring at the Devil’s Millhopper which is located approximately six miles northwest of Gainesville, Florida. RESULTS The aquatic Hyphomycetes are represented by a world flora of 70 species and 38 genera. In this investigation 15 species from 12 genera and one undescribed conidial type have been found. Listed below are the aquatic Hyphomycetes found from Florida. 1. Actinospora megalospora Ingold, 1952. Conidia are tetrara- diate aleuriospores (Fig. 1A). Measurements are: center cell 35- 50. in diameter, 4-8 lateral arms 100-180u4 X 8u. The center cell is usually of a foamy, brown appearance and the lateral arms are hyaline. These are the largest conidia found in this group. This species was obtained commonly from the streams. Distri- bution in the USA: Conn. (Crane), Florida (Conway), New York (Conway). 2. Anguillospora gigantea Ranzoni, 1953. Conidia are the largest in the genus Anguillospora (Fig. 1C). They are multi- septate sigmoid aleuriospores which measure 350-700u X 5-7». The species has only been found in great abundance in April 1969. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Florida (Con- way), New York (Petersen ). 3. Anguillospora longissima (Sacc. & Syd.) Ingold, 1942. This is a multiseptate sigmoid aleuriospore measuring 150-3004 5-7u (Fig. 1D). It has been found to be common in Florida. The mechanism of release thought to occur only in this species is characterized by the collapse of a separating cell beneath the conidium, which releases the conidium. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Conn. (Petersen), Florida (Conway), Ga. (Pet- ersen), Ind. (Baxter), Mass. (Ingold), N. J. (Peterson), N.Y. (Con- way, Petersen), Pa. (Petersen), S. C., Tenn. (Petersen), Va. (Umphlett ), W. Va. (Crane), Wyoming (Baxter). 4. Anguillospora pseudolongissima Ranzoni, 1953. This species is very similar to A. longissima except that conidia never ex- ceed 100u in length (Fig. 1B). Its occurrence in Florida is rare. Distribution in the USA:Calif. (Ranzoni), Conn. (Petersen), Fla. (Conway), Ga. (Petersen), N.Y. (Conway), Pa., S.C., Tenn. ( Petersen ). Conway: Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Florida 213 Fig. 1. A, Actinospora megalospora X 100; B, Anguillospora pseudolongis- hg X 500; C, Anguillospora gigantea X 500; D, Anguillospora longissima X 214 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 5. Articulospora tetracladia Ingold forma tetracladia Nilsson, 1954. The aleuriospore consists of four arms (Fig. 2D). The first arm is 16-25 » X 3-5 mw and consists of 2-3 cells. This arm is usually characterized by the presence of a slight inflation near the point of divergence of the arms. The other three arms are approximately equa] in length 20-50 » x 3-4 ». Conidia of this species have been found in only a few collections. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Conn. (Petersen), Del. (Crane), Fla. (Conway), Ga. (Petersen), Mass. (Nilsson), Md., Me. (Crane), N.C. (Petersen), N.H. (Crane, Nilsson), N-J. (Peter- sen), N.Y. (Conway, Petersen), Pa., S.C., Tenn. (Petersen), Va., Vt., W. Va. (Crane), Wyo. (Baxter). 6. Campylospora chaetocladia Ranzoni, 1953. This is an unusual crozier form of a multiseptate tetraradiate arrangement (Fig. 2B). It is an aleuriospore and is commonly found in the streams of this area. Overall dimensions of a conidium from arm to arm is approximately 100 ». Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Fla. (Conway), N.Y. (Petersen), Oreg. (Baxter), W. Va. (Crane). 7. Clavatospora tentacula (Umphlett) Nilsson, 1964. Conidia are unicellular, tetraradiate phialospores. The main axis is clavate 56-62 » in length (Fig. 2C). Slender lateral arms 30-55» in length arise near the apex of the clavate head. It is common in Florida. Distribution in the USA: Fla. (Conway), Ind. (Bax- ter), Va. (Umphlett), N.Y. (Conway). 8. Flagellospora curvula Ingold, 1942. Conidia are unicellu- lar sigmoid phialospores measuring up to 180 » in length (Fig. 2E,). This species is characterized by having long slender conidia and from two to ten phialides per conidiophore. This species has been observed only a few times from this area. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Fla. (Conway), Mass. (Nilsson), N.C. (Petersen), N.H. (Nilsson), N.Y. (Conway ). 9. Geniculospora inflata (Ingold) Nilsson, 1964. Conidia are tetraradiate aleuriospores (Fig. 2A). Each arm measures 40-120 pw X 38-4 »w and is usually 2-3 septate. Conidia are usually char- acterized by an inflation at the point of divergence of the arms. Its occurrence in Florida is rare. Distribution in the USA: Fla. (Conway), Me. (Crane), N.J. (Petersen), N.Y. (Conway, Peter- sen), 5.C. (Petersen): Conway: Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Florida 215 UGK Fig. 2. A, Geniculospora inflata; B, Campylospora chaetocladia; C, Clavato- spora tentacula; D, Articulospora tetracladia forma tetracladia; E, Flagellospora curvula; F, Lemonniera aquatica. All 500. 216 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 10. Lemonniera aquatica DeWild., 1894. This species is the largest tetraradiate phialospore (Fig. 2F). The four arms of a conidia are 20-70 » X 3-4 uw. Conidia are inserted on the phialide not at the tip of one of the arms but at the point of divergence of the arms. This species was common in occurrence. Distribu- tion in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Fla. (Conway), Mass. (Nils- son), N.C. (Petersen), N.H. (Nilsson), N.J. (Petersen), N.Y. (Conway, Petersen), Pa., S.C., Tenn. (Petersen), Va. (Crane, Umphlett ), W. Va. (Crane), Wyo. (Baxter). 11. Lunulospora curvula Ingold, 1942. Conidia are unicellular crescent shaped aleuriospores measuring 66-90 » X 5-6 » (Fig. 3A). Conidia may appear septate due to the presence of vac- uoles. Point of attachment of the conidia is not at the tip, but toward the middle of the convex side. The conidia are shed by the breakdown of a separating cell. This is one of the more common species in this area. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Conn. (Petersen), Del. (Crane), Fla. (Conway), Ga. (Petersen), Mass. (Nilsson), N.C. (Petersen), N.H. (Nilsson), N.Y. (Conway, Petersen), Oreg. (Baxter), Pa., S.C. (Petersen), Va. (Umphlett), Wyo. (Baxter). 12. Tetrachaetum elegans Ingold, 1942. This is a large mul- tiseptate tetraradiate aleuriospore (Fig. 3E). Its main axis may exceed 200 », with each arm measuring 120-150 » « 2-4 uw. Point of attachment to the conidiophore is at the tip of one of the arms. It is common in occurrence in this area. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Conn. (Petersen), Fla. (Conway), N.C. (Petersen), N.H. (Nilsson), N.J. (Petersen), N.Y. (Conway, Peter- sen), Oreg. (Baxter,) Pa., S.C., Tenn, (Petersem)eeian @rane, Umphlett), Wyo. (Baxter). 13. Tetracladium marchalianum DeWild., 1893. Conidia are tetraradiate aleuriospores (Fig. 3C). Three arms are 24-30 » X 2-3 p and the basal extension 16-27» X 4-5 ». Conidia are characterized by the presence of two protuberances at the divergence of the arms. The primary protuberance is 5-7 « X 8-9 » and the second- ary protuberance is approximately 5 » in diameter. This is the most frequently occurring aquatic Hyphomycete in Florida. Dis- tribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Del. (Crane), Fla. (Con- way), Mass. (Nilsson), N.C. (Petersen), N.H. (Nilsson), N.J. Conway: Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Florida Biny Fig. 3. A, Lunulospora curvula; B, Tetraclacladium setigerum, germinating conidia; C, Tetracladium marchalianum; D, Tricelophorus monosporus; E, Te- trachaetum elegans; F, Unknown conidia. All X500. 218 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (Petersen), N.Y. (Conway, Petersen), Oreg. (Baxter), Va. (Um- phlett), W. Va. (Crane), Wyo. (Baxter). 14. Tetracladium setigerum (Grove) Ingold, 1942. The co- nidia are similar to T. marchalianum except for the presence of three protuberances at the divergence of the arms (Fig. 3B). Each protuberance is approximately 11-15 » « 4-5 » and may be Q-3 septate. This species occurred rarely and was only present in one collection in April 1969. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Fla. (Conway), N.C. (Petersen), N.Y. (Conway, Pet- ersen), S.C. (Petersen), Va. (Umphlett). 15. Triscelophorus monosporus Ingold, 1943. Conidia are solitary aleuriospores with the main axis of the conidia being an extension of the short conidiophore (Fig. 3D). The main axis is 30-50 » 4-5 w at its widest part, and the lateral branches are 16-30 » X 2.0-2.5 ». The three lateral arms arise one at a time as buds from the main axis. This species is common in this area. Distribution in the USA: Calif. (Ranzoni), Fla. (Conway), Ind. (Baxter), N.Y. (Conway, Petersen), Tenn. (Petersen), Va. (Umph- lea). 16. Undescribed conidial type. The unknown conidium con- sists of a main axis 38 » in length which tapers in width to 3-0.5 » from the point of attachment of the arms to the coni- diophore (Fig. 3F). The arms are up to 85 » in length. They are constricted at their attachment to the main axis, but enlarge to 4 » in width at approximately one-third of their length and then taper to 0.5-1 » at their tips. The main axis is two sep- tate. The arms are 11-12 septate and appear to be constricted only at septa in the enlarged portion of the arms. Obtaining this organism in pure culture is necessary for further description. CONCLUSION Although the area sampled is small in relation to the entire state, this technique of continuous sampling has been shown to be a satisfactory, if not superior, method of determining presence of species for a larger area (Conway 1968). The reason for this appears to be that aquatic Hyphomycetes may be cyclic in oc- currence, being present in the streams only under certain condi- tions. Therefore, one sampling of an area would be a poor cri- terion of species present in that area. Conway: Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Florida 219 As a result of collections over a nine month period, certain tendencies of the aquatic flora can be observed. Tetracladium marchalianum and Actinospora megalospora are the most frequently occurring species in this area. Lunulospora curvula, Anguillospora longissima and Triscelophorus monosporus are also very common. Species such as Anguillospora gigantea and Tetracladium setigerum occur sporadically, but when present they are in great numbers. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful for the help and cooperation of Dr. James W. Kimbrough and for his assistance in the photography of the aquatic conidia. I would like to thank Dr. George F. Weber and Dr. Leland Shanor for reviewing this paper. LITERATURE CITED BANHEGHI, J. 1962. Aquatic Hyphomycetes of the Danube. Ann. Univ. Sci. Budapest, Sect. Biol., vol. 5, pp. 13-26. Baxter, J. W. 1961. Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Wyoming. Mycologia, vol. 52, pp. 654-655. 1964. Aquatic Hyphomycetes from Oregon. Mycologia, vol. 56, p. LS: Conway, Kk. E. 1968. Aquatic Hyphomycetes of central New York. The- sis, State University College of Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y. Cowuine, S. W., anp J. S. Wam. 1963. Aquatic Hyphomycetes in Aus- tralia. Australian Jour. Sci., vol. 26, pp. 122-124. CRANE, LELAND J. 1968. Freshwater Hyphomycetes of the northern Ap- palachian highland, including New England and three coastal plain states. Am. Jour. Bot., vol. 55, pp. 996-1002. DEWILDEMAN, E. 1893. Notes mycologiques. Ann. Soc. Belge Micr., vol. 17, pp. 35-68. 1894. Notes mycologiques. Ann. Soc. Belge Micr., vol. 18, pp. 135- 161. Dixonm eae 959. Stream spora in Chana. rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 42, pp. 174-176. Fenton, A. F. 1950. Aquatic Hyphomycetes of Northern Ireland. Irish Natajous. vole 10; pps 22-23. INcotp, C. T. 1942. Aquatic Hyphomycetes of decaying alder leaves. Trans. Brit. Myccl. Soc., vol. 25, pp. 339-417. 1943. Triscelophorus monosporus n.gen., n.sp., an aquatic Hypho- mycete. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 26, pp. 148-152. 1949. Aquatic Hyphomycetes from Switzerland. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 32, pp. 341-345. 220 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES —. 1952. Actinospora meqalospora n. sp., an aquatic Hyphomycete. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 35, pp. 66-71. 1956. Stream spora in Nigeria. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 39, pp. 108-110. ——. 1958. Aquatic Hyphomycetes from Uganda and Rhodesia. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 41, pp. 109-114. 1959. Aquatic spora of Omo forest, Nigeria. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soe:, vol. 42, pp. 479-485: ——. 1960. Aquatic Hyphomycetes irom Canada. Can. Jour. Bot., vol. 38, pp. 803-806. Nisson, S. 1962. Some aquatic Hyphomycetes from South America. Svensk Bot. Tidskr., vol. 56, pp. 351-361. —. 1964. Freshwater Hyphomycetes. Symbolae Botanica Upsaliensis, vol. 18, pp. 1-130. PETERSEN, R. H. 1960. Cullicidospora, a new genus of aquatic, aleurio- sporous Hyphomycetes. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vol. 87, pp. 342-347. 1962. Aquatic Hyphomycetes from North America. JI. Aleuriosporae (Part I), and key to the genera. Mycologia, vol. 54, pp. 117-151. 1963a. Aquatic Hyphomycetes from North America. II. Aleuriosporae (Part II), and blastosporae. Mycologia, vol. 55, pp. 18-29. ——. 1963b. Aquatic Hyphomycetes from North America. III. Phialo- sporae and miscellaneous species. Mycologia, vol. 55, pp. 570-581. Ranzoni, F. V. 1953. The aquatic Hyphomycetes of California. Farlowia, vol. 4, pp. 353-398. ——. 1956. The perfect stage of Flagellospora penicillioides. Amer. Jour. Bot, yol243) spp teu: Tuspaki, K. 1957. Studies on the Japanese Hyphomycetes (III). Aquatic group. Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus. Tokyo, vol. 41, pp. 249-268. —. 1965. Short note on aquatic spora in East New Guinea. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Japan, vol. 6, pp. 11-16. — ——. 1966. An undescribed species of Hymenoscyphus, a perfect stage of Varicosporium. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 49 pp. 345-348. Wesster, J. 1959a. Experiments with spores of aquatic Hyphomycetes. I. Sedimentation and impaction on smooth surfaces. Ann. Bot., London, new ser., vol. 23, pp. 595-611. —. 1959b. Nectria luqdunensis sp. nov., the perfect state of Heliscus lugdunensis. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. vol. 42, pp. 322-327. —. 1961. The Mollisia perfect state of Anguillospora crassa. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 44, pp. 559-564. 1965. The perfect state of Pyricularia aquatica. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. vol. 48, pp. 449-452. Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32 (3) 1969 (1970) Reaction of Lead Tetraacetate with Grignard Reagents McDonatp Moore, F.. C. LANNING, AND WILLIAM CLARK REAcTION of lead tetraacetate with aliphatic Grignard reagents can lead to the formation of tetraalkylead compounds (Williams, 1967). Hexaneopentyldilead was formed when neopentylmagne- sium chloride was used because of the steric hindrance effects. No results were reported of the products formed from the ester groups of the lead tetraacetate with the Grignard reagents. The present report extends this study to include aromatic Grignard reagents. The reactions were carried out in a ratio of two times the stoichio- metric amount of Grignard reagents to lead tetraacetate. A stoich- iometric amount of Grignard reagent would be 4 molecules of Grignard reagent to one of the lead tetraacetate. The following organolead compounds and ketones have been prepared by the reaction of lead tetraacetate with Grignard rea- gents: tetraphenyllead and acetophenone from phenylmagnesium bromide; and hexa-o-tolydilead and o-methylacetophenone from o-tolylmagnesium bromide. It is interesting to note that Austin (1931) could not prepare tetra-o-tolyllead directly from the Grig- nard reagent and lead chloride. The infrared spectra of these compounds were determined be- tween 400 and 4000 cm. The tetraphenyllead spectrum cor- responded with one reported by Clark, Davies and Puddephatt (1969). The spectrum for hexa-o-tolydilead (Table 1) showed absorption peaks that would be expected for a toluene derivative. Peaks also occurred at other frequencies such as 1045 cm and 1207 cm. Henry and Noltes (1960) reported corresponding ab- sorption frequencies for tetraphenyllead, triphenylvinyllead and triphenylallyllead. EXPERIMENTAL The apparatus was similar to that used by Williams (1967) to react lead tetraacetate with alphatic Grignard reagents. Lead tetraacetate was obtained from Matheson Coleman and Bell through Curtain Chemical Company. The reactions were carried out at room temperature in a one liter three-necked flask equipped with condenser and paddle stirrer. Lead tetraacetate was added 222 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Infrared spectrum of hexa-o-tolyldilead, cm-1 3400 S (broad) 1203 MS 3050 M 1155 W 2980 M 1115 W 2940 W 1045 W 2920 WwW 1018 M 2850 W 865 WwW 1640 M | 845 W 1580 M 793 W 1575 M 750 S 1545 M 744 Ss 1450 S 534 W 1280 W 480 W 1270 M 425 S from a 50 ml round-bottom flask connected to the reaction vessel by a short piece of Gooch tubing. Phenylmagnesium Bromide with Lead Tetraacetate. Pheny]l- magnesium bromide was prepared from 10.0 g (10.4 mole) of magnesium metal and an equivalent amount of phenyl bromide in 300 ml of tetrahydrofuran (THF) by the usual manner. The solution was then allowed to cool to room temperature and 22.2 g (0.05 mole) of lead tetraacetate was added over a 20 minute period. The mixture was stirred mechanically for one hour after the addition was completed. The organic solution was decanted, leaving white needles which were washed with petroleum ether and collected. Then the Grignard complex was hydrolyzed in the usual manner. The THF was removed by vacuum, leaving more white needles and a heavy yellow oil. These white needles were collected, washed with petroleum ether and combined with the other white needles. The yellow oil was distilled yielding aceto- phenone (b.p. 205, lit. 205) and a decomposed liquid in the dis- Moore Et AL: Lead Tetraacetate Reaction 225 tilling flask. A 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone was prepared in the usual manner from the acetophenone, purified from ethanol and gave yellow needles (m.p. 249-50, lit. 249-50). Its infrared spec- trum was identical to acetophenone 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone spectrum in the Sadlter Catalog (Sadtler Standard Spectra, no. 1779). Analysis indicated the white needles to be tetraphenyllead, moe 7o:2 yield) mp. 228-9, Lit. 227. Anal. Caled. for C.,H.,Pb; Pb, 40.18. Found: Pb, 40.00. Infrared spectra of this and other compounds were determined with a Perkin Elmer model 337 infrared spectrometer. The com- pounds tested were made into pellets with potassium bromide. Lead was determined by the method of Gilman and Robinson (1928). o-Tolylmagnesium Bromide with Lead Tetraacetate. A Grig- nard solution was prepared from 2.0 g (0.08 mole) of magnesium metal and 31.7 g (0.08 mole) of o-bromotoluene in 100 ml of THF by the usual manner. The solution was then allowed to cool to room temperature and 4.4 g (0.01 mole) of lead tetraacetate was added. The mixture was stirred mechanically for one hour after the addition of lead tetraacetate. The organic solution was de- canted, leaving white crystals which were washed with petroleum ether. The hexa-o-tolydilead weighed 2.8 g (63% yield) with m.p. 248-50, Lit. 248-50) and its Anal. Calcd. for C,,H..Pb.: Pb, 48.12. Found: Pb, 42.82. The Grignard complex was hydrolyzed in the usual manner and the organic layer was collected. The THF was removed under vacuum, leaving light brown solid and a light oil. The oil, o-methylacetophenone was collected and identified by its 2,4 dini- trophenylhydrazone derivative (m.p. 158-9, Lit. 159). The brown solid, purified twice from ethanol, was a wax-like mixture with a melting point 96-120°C. Further study is needed to identify this. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was supported by the National Science Founda- tion through the R.P.C.T. program (GY-2422) at Kansas State Uni- versity and Rho Alpha Chapter of Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc. The authors wish to thank Dr. T. G. Jackson of the University of South Alabama for recording the infrared spectra. 224 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED AusTIN, P. R. 1931. Studies of organic lead compounds. I. Action of acid on lead aryls. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 53, pp. 1548-1552. Ciark, H. C., A. G. Davies, AND R. J. PuppePHatr. 1969. Vibrational] spectra and structure of organolead compounds. II. Tetraphenyllead, hexaphenyldilead, triphenyllead halides and diphenyllead dihalides. Jour. Inorg. Chem., vol. 8, pp. 457-463. GiLMAN, H., anp J. Ropinson. 1928. A method for the quantative analy- sis of lead in organic compounds. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 50, ppe tla 7G; Henry, M. C., anp J. G. Notrres. 1960. Infrared absorption spectra of some IV" group organometallic compounds. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 82, pp. 555-558. WiuiAMs, K. C. 1967. Synthesis of organolead compounds from lead tetraacetate. Jour. Org. Chem., vol. 32, pp. 4062-4063. Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas (present address of first author: Erling Riis Research Lab- oratory, International Paper Co., Mobile, Alabama 36601); Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66502; Mobile County Train- ing School, Plateau, Alabama 36610. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969( 1970) Studies of Pollution in the Indian River Complex T. A. NEviIn AND J. A. LASATER Tue Indian River-Banana River Complex is an estuarine lagoon, which serves as a major recreational area of the Central East Coast of Florida. Permanent populations along its shores vary considerably, from essentially rural to small city densities. In gen- eral, the more urban areas are served by conventional sewage Western Shore. The rest of the area is serviced by septic tanks. treatment plants, the more important of which are located on the There is also a thriving shell-fish industry in the area. Since pollution of these waters is of economic as well as es- thetic importance, studies of the nature and levels of certain pol- lutants were initiated. METHODS AND MATERIALS Two sample lines have been established in the Indian River, between the Eau Gallie and Melbourne Causeways. Each line is anchored on the Coast and Geodetic Survey buoys which mark the channel for the Intracoastal Waterway, and with easily recog- nized Jandmarks on either shore. Specific sampling points along each line were selected by triangulation, and marked with appro- priately identified buoys. Samples of the river bottom were obtained with a “tiltcan’, devised by a student assistant, and stored in plastic bags. Water samples were collected in clean plastic 1-2 gallon bottles. All samples were stored under refrigeration until analyzed. Bacterio- logical analyses were begun within 3 to 4 hours after sample col- lection; chemical analyses, within 24 hours. Ten grams wet weight of bottom sample were shaken vigor- ously in 90 ml of sterile distilled water for 10 minutes. The heavy particulates were allowed to settle and the fluid portion then used for bacterio-logical evaluation. The remainder of the sample was dried at 70-80C for 24 hours. The dried sample was then ex- tracted with 10 times its weight of distilled water. The aqueous exact was used for chemical analyses. All data, bacteriological as well as chemical, from bottom samples, are presented as amounts per gram of dried sample. River water samples were suitably diluted with sterile distilled 226 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES water for bacteriological evaluation, and as necessary for chemical analyses. Bacterial analysis employed the millipore-filter technique (Fi- field and Schaufus, C. P. 1958). Nitrate was reduced to nitrite with cadmium and reacted with alpha naphthol. Lignin-tannin (hy- droxylated aromatic compounds) was estimated by reaction with tyrosine (Hach, 1969), and phenol with 4-aminoantipyrine and extraction with chloroform (Standard Methods, APHA 1965). Chloride was titrated with silver nitrate (Standard Methods, APHA 1965), and pH was measured potentiometrically. EXPERIMENTAL Preliminary experiments, as exemplified in Table 1, indicated that variations in the distribution of the river contents measured, might be of some significance. For example, the nitrate concen- tration increased from 22 »g/ml on the west bank to 26.4 ng/ml on the east bank. A similar increase occurred from surface waters TABLE 1 Cross-sectional distribution of nitrate! and coliforms? in the Indian River Depth Sample Points il D 3 4 5) Surface NO, 22.00 22.44 22,.88 2 OSaae 26.4 Coliforms 0 170 988 64 0 3 Feet NO, 27.28 24.64 28.16 28.60 28.38 Coliforms 304 0 810 182 79 6 Feet NO, 22.44 33.00 31.24 Coliforms 0 0 461 13 Feet NO, 33.00 Coliforms 0 1Micrograms per milliter. 2Per 100 milliliters of sample. NEVIN AND Lasarter: Pollution of Indian River 227 to near bottom waters, ranging from an average of 24 »g/ml at the surface to 33 wg/ml at 13 feet deep (just above the bot- tom). Of interest also is the distribution of coliforms among the samples. These seemed not to occur consistently below a depth of 3 feet. It was decided therefore, that several factors should be studied in detail, and that initial experiments would be concerned with comparisons of the levels of these factors in surface waters with those in bottom samples taken from the sampling point. Table 2 summarizes these initial experiments. It should be noted that the data presented Table 1 were obtained from samples col- lected during February 1969, a relatively dry period, whereas those in Table 2 were obtained from samples collected during April and May 1969, when rain occurred fairly frequently. The concentration of nitrate was about 4 times greater in bot- tom samples than in surface water samples, in agreement with the vertical distribution data for this pollutant as shown in Table 1. The unexpectedly high levels demonstrable in bottom samples may reflect the formation of some colloidal CdS during testing but this was not visible to the unaided eye. Alternatively, there may have been some nonspecific absorption of nitrate which carried it to the bottom. The west to east increase noted previously (Table 1) does not appear in Table 2, probably because of the wind and wave mixing action during rainstorms. The distribution of chloride ions was also unexpected, and is not amenable to easy explanation. Pending further study, it is suggested that this may indicate the intrusion of ocean waters into the lagoon, probably through Sebastian Inlet. The fate of the wood extractives lignin and tannin is not well understood. The present data suggest that these materials may accumulate on the bottom of the river, and are there degraded, probably by biological action. The high levels in bottom sam- ples, about i0 times the concentrations found in surface waters, may also be amenable to explanation by absorption. Another pos- sible explanation, which would apply to nitrates as well, is the relatively higher pH of the bottom and this could cause the bot- tom to serve as an anion trap. In this connection, it is interesting to point out that at the lower pH of the surface waters appreci- ably fewer coliform bacteria occurred than in the bottom samples QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 228 *JUNOD O} SNOIOUMU OOT ¢ ‘UINIPOUL S$ OPUA UO MOIS YOTYA\ VITOJOVG podeys-por “sunuoULIey 9S0}0L] ‘QAQesOU Weis [[@ sopnpouyz ‘yuoTeVATnbe ore [vItoyVUL W0}JOq FO qystom Arp “WwieIs [ pue 1o}VM fo "TWIT WY} pounsse useq sey } uoHeorqnd sry} Jo sosodimd 10.4; O.LN.L OLN OWING OWN. O.LN.L OLN 6O,LN.L W0}}0q 0062 0088 OOV6 OOV9 OOVL OOT OT OOSS SORTS gSULIO FTO) c9'L Og L 09'L OL'L 09'L 06°L 09'L U0}},0q 99°9 cqc’9 SES) 0gS'9 089 069 c9'9 g0e}Ins§ Hd VoL 0 O€LO O€TO OFT O OVO a 060°0 00}}0q 9010 LGLO ¢60°0 GLO 0 OGIO IGL 0 860°0 go0eFIns jeustid 09'S 00'0G 00°9T 00°96 00'9L —s 00 OV U10}}0q ufuue |, 896 0 GLI 0 cIVv0 Gol 0 CLIO €6 0 GLE 0 soepING uyust'y cog Bige CLE aK G'Lg _ Giie 110904 eo SIT Go 901 Cé6LT CLL qLOL Go LoL CsCl goeFINS splHolyO OU LIT 8'c9l 0°88 6 SVL COLT fa: G6L 00}}0q G8'SG T&¢ L'66 0'GG ©GG QLG G16 SOBzING OFCTIN S}SOJ, Q[-A8vIOAYV 9 G V p G T yuIog 9[dures soyduies U0}}0Q LOATI polip pue TDPCVM DOCFIS UIIMJOG S[eito}e Ut UOULULOO UTe}1I0 fo HOQNAGLOSIC 6 WIAVL NEvVIN AND LasaTER: Pollution of Indian River 229 at the higher pH. The fact that phenol seemed to be fairly evenly dispersed be- tween the surface water and the bottom, while inexplicable at present, tends to validate the data for the other components meas- ured. If there were a sampling bias toward increased values in bottom specimens, it should have been reflected in the phenol levels. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors take this opportunity to thank the students of the Hydrospace Technical Institute, who collected the samples and conducted most of the tests herein reported, and to thank Mr. Sheldon Hall, the Director of HTI, for his cooperation. LITERATURE CITED FirieLp, C. W., anp Scuaurus, C. P. 1958. Improved membrane filter medium for the detection of coliform organisms. Jour. Amer. Water Works Assn., vol. 50, pp. 193-6. AMERICAN Pusiic HEALTH AssocIATION. 1965. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American Health Association, American Water Works Association, & Water Pollution Control Fed- eration, 12th ed., p. 769. Hacu CuHemicaL Company. 1967. Water and waste water analysis proce- dures. Hach Chemical Company, Ames. Iowa, p. 104. University Center for Pollution Research, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32 (3) 1969 (1970) An Unusual Salamander from the Ocala National Forest Joun B. FuNDERBURG, Davin S. LEE, AND MARGARET L. GILBERT A FIELD party from Florida Southern College secured a single salamander of the genus Ambystoma on June 4, 1964, at Hughes Island, near the center of the Ocala National Forest. This speci- men appeared to be recently transformed, and it measured 24.2 mm in snout-vent length and 54.9 mm in total length. The head measured 7.1 mm in length by 4.8 mm in width. On the dorsum the specimen showed a few faint round spots which were yellow while it was alive. It is now, after five years of preservation, uni- formly black, with belly and legs not much paler than the dorsum. This salamander does not favorably correspond to any of the spe- cies of Ambystoma presently recognized as occurring in Florida, but it may represent a young spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum (Shaw). Carr (1940) included the spotted salamander in the herpeto- fauna of Florida on the basis of a single specimen from Candler, Marion County, Florida, University of Michigan Museum of Zool- ogy no. 46937. Bishop (1943) followed Carr by including penin- sular Florida in the range of this species. Neill (1954), however, considered the Candler individual a variant of the tiger sala- mander, Ambystoma tigrinum (Green), and through lack of addi- tional material subsequent authors (Anderson, in Riemer, 1967; Carr and Goin, 1955; Conant, 1958) accepted Neill’s decision. Ac- cordingly, Ambystoma maculatum has not been included in the re- cent treatments of the Florida herpetofauna. We have examined both the Candler and the Hughes Island specimens. The over-all length of the latter individual compares favorably with the total length of recently transformed spotted salamanders from New York, which Bishop (1941) reported as 42-70 mm (mean 51). A series of larval A. maculatum from Maryland was raised in captivity by the authors and preserved at the time of transformation. Measurements of these individuals are similar to those of the Hughes Island specimen. The Candler salamander shows seven pairs of round yellow spots on the head and body and additional round spots on the tail. Tooth patterns of both specimens closely approach those of New York A. macu- latum illustrated by Bishop (1941). FUNDERBURG ET AL.: Unusual Salamander 231 Hughes Island is a large hardwood hammock noted particularly for the size of its virgin loblolly bay, Gordonia lesanthus, which, along with sweetbay magnolia, Magnolia virginiana, red_ bay, Persea borbonia, and black gum, Nyssa sylvatica, makes up the overstory. This hammock has been protected from fire, and there is a thick layer of humus and duff with tangles of decaying logs and debris on the forest floor. Since vast stands of sand pine, Pinus clausa, on loose, well-drained soils, completely surround the hammock to form an ecological “island”, the possibility of migra- tions of salamanders adapted to cool, moist conditions, into or away from the island, is now nonexistent. In spite of numerous attempts to collect more specimens, we have failed to do so. Intensive sampling of a small permanent sinkhole pond at the edge of the island, as well as several isolated, shallow, spring-fed pools, has failed to reveal either eggs or larvae of Ambystoma. The appearance of introduced redear sunfish, Lepomis microlophus, which were not observed on our 1964 trip, may have eliminated the eggs and larvae of Ambystoma. Slimy salamanders, Plethodon glutinosus, newts, Notophthalmus virides- cens, cricket frogs, Acris gryllus, southern toads, Bufo terrestris, leopard frogs, Rana pipiens, gopher frogs, Rana areolata, and greenhouse frogs, Eleutherodactylus ricordi, are the only other amphibians thus far encountered in this community. Although we do not believe that Ambystoma maculatum should be restored to the list of the state’s herpetofauna until additional specimens confirm this report, the above data strongly suggest that an interesting population of salamanders occurs in this section of Florida. It is hoped that new material will eventually make it possible to clarify the taxonomic status of this salamander. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Coleman J. Goin for examining our specimen and Charles F. Walker for the loan of the Candler indi- vidual. Walter Auffenberg supplied us with many Florida speci- mens of Ambystoma for comparison. The Hughes Island speci- men is presently being placed in the collection of the Florida State Museum. This study was partially supported by N.S.F. UPR Grant GE4161. 232 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED BisHop, S. C. 1941. The salamanders of New York. Bull. New York State Mus., no. 324. —. 1943. Handbook of salamanders. Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, New York. Carr, ARCHIE Farruy, JR. 1940. A contribution to the herpetology of Florida. Univ. Florida Publ., Biol. Sci. ser., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1-118. Carr, ARCHIE, AND COLEMAN J. Gorn. 1955 Guide to the reptiles, amphib- ians, and fresh-water fishes of Florida. University of Florida Press, Gainesville. CoNANT, Rocer. 1958. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. © NEILL, WitFRED T. 1954. Ranges and taxonomic allocations of amphibians and reptiles in the southeastern United States. Publ. Research Div. Ross Allen’s Reptile Inst., vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 75-96. RiEMER, W1LL1AM J. (ed.). 1963 et seq. Catalogue of American amphibians and reptiles. Amer. Soc. Ichth. & Herp., Kensington, Maryland. Department of Biology, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969( 1970) Occurrence of the Carpenter Frog in Florida Henry M. STEVENSON THE available statements and maps of the range of the Car- penter Frog, Rana virgatipes Cope, indicate its southern limit to be the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia. No record of its occurrence in Florida has come to my attention, though the adjacent swamps in that state are almost continuous with the Okefenokee. On March 23 and July 30, 1968, my son, James, and I traveled to this section of Florida to look for Rana virgatipes. On each trip few species of anurans were calling, and those few were readily identified as common Florida species. Seining efforts also yielded only Florida anurans until, on the July trip, we forced our way into a dense cypress swamp in Baker County one-half mile south of the Georgia line and 4 1/2 miles east of Columbia County. Although the seine could be pulled through the thick growth of Sphagnum only with difficulty, three large tadpoles were caught that appeared different from all other Florida larval anurans, though bearing a superficial resemblance to the larvae of the Pig Frog, Rana grylio Stegneger. Two of these have been preserved (FSU 830), and one died in an aquarium several months later. The preserved specimens were compared with six specimens of Rana grylio of comparable size (length of 70 mm or more) and, on the following bases, were determined to be specimens of Rana virgatipes. The lengths of these two specimens are 70 and 77 mm, but each has hind limbs about 7 mm long. A specimen of R. grylio measuring 70 mm shows only rudiments of the limb buds. The rows of dark spots in the dorsal fin and on the tail musculature are bolder than in grylio, the latter row continuing to the tail tip. The dorsal fin is also edged with numerous dark spots of similar size, unlike the condition in grylio. Whereas the abdominal wall of grylio is opaque, with a light ground color, heavily mottled with dark pigment, that of the virgatipes specimens is translucent and appears dark bluish in preservative. Both specimens of virgatipes had two complete rows of papillae below the lower tooth rows, and every specimen of grylio only one. All six specimens of grylio showed a second upper tooth row, with one lateral half being at least 10 per cent of the length of the first upper tooth row in four of the six. Both specimens of virgatipes lacked the second upper 234 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tooth row. The third lower tooth row was present in all speci- mens of grylio, but lacking in one of virgatipes. All of these characteristics except the last agree with those given in the keys, descriptions, and photographs in Wright and Wright (1949), but the loss of a lower tooth row is not cited there for either species. Another character not precisely stated in that work was also noted: the specimens of virgatipes have a noticeably longer spiracle, its tip being equidistant between the eye and the base of the anal tube. The tip of the spiracle proved consistently closer to the eye than to the anal tube both in the six large specimens of grylio and in the several small specimens examined. In one respect the specimens of R. virgatipes did not agree with Wright and Wright (plates XIII and XIV). The shape and thickness of the pigmented upper mandible of both species were like those of grylio, not like those depicted for virgatipes. Although no explanation of this discrepancy presents itself, the overwhelming weight of the evidence convinces me that the two new specimens are indeed the larval stage of Rana virgatipes. In all obvious re- spects the live specimen closely resembled them. In two proportions slight differences were noted between the specimens of Rana grylio and R. virgatipes, but with considerable overlap. The ratio of body length to tail length of grylio (measured along lateral axis) ranged from 42-52 per cent, as against 50-55 per cent in virgatipes. The maximum tail depth in grylio ranged from 29-37 per cent of tail length; in virgatipes, 32-35 per cent. In view of the small number of specimens, these differences are insignifi- cant. As the color differences mentioned above apparently are not present earlier in life (see Stage 25 in Catalogue of American am- phibians and reptiles, 67.2) it was thought advisable to apply other criteria to the identification of other specimens caught in nearby ditches and streams and first considered specimens of Rana grylio. Five of these were much smaller (40-55 mm) and showed the short, more anterior spiracular tube of Rana grylio. Another specimen in this lot was comparable in size to the virgatipes speci- mens, but had the color pattern of grylio and lacked definite hind limbs. It resembled grylio in most other respects also, but showed two rows of papillae below the lower tooth rows, lacked a third lower tooth row, and had less dark mottling on the sides of the STEVENSON: Carpenter Frog in Florida 235 belly. Although it is best referred to grylio, it suggests the possi- bility of an interbreeding of the two species somewhere in its an- cestry. On April 12, 1969, the two of us returned to the swamp with D. Bruce Means and seined for larvae before dark. Out of 38 col- lected, 30 proved to be Rana clamitans, five were grylio, and only three were virgatipes. These specimens of virgatipes did not differ materially from the July specimens except in size, the largest having a total length of 86 mm (FSU 879; DBM 1202). After dark ten adults were captured, four of which were Rana virgatipes and six R. grylio. Although no Rana clamitans were caught, a few were heard calling. No other ranids were heard. The largest specimen of virgatipes measured 39.5 mm in head-body length, smaller than most of the grylio specimens. The strong similarity of virgatipes to grylio in the larval stage is paralleled in the adult stage. Both lack the dorsolateral ridge but have two light dorsal stripes and a white stripe on the rear surface of the thigh. Although the dorsal stripes are more noticeable in virgatipes and six R. grylio. Although no Rana clamitans were ing the two species. These were the more fully webbed hind toes in grylio and a conspicuous white lateral stripe in virgatipes. The strong similarity during two stages of the life cycle suggests that these two species are very closely related. LITERATURE CITED RreMeER, WittiaM J. (ed.). 1963 et seq. Catalogue of American amphibians and reptiles. Amer. Soc. Ichth. & Herp., Kensington, Maryland. Waricut, ALBERT H., anD ANNA A. Wricur. 1949. Handbook of frogs and toads of the United States and Canada. Comstock Publ. Asso., Ithaca, New York, 640 pp. Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tal- lahassee Florida 32306. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969( 1970) A Pale Mutant Wild Turkey in Juvenal Plumage Lovetr E. WILLIAMS, Jr. A RECURRENT pale mutant condition has been described in the post-juvenal plumage of three specimens of wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) from Baker County, Florida (Williams, 1964). Since then six additional specimens, partial specimens, or photographs of specimens representing the same condition have been obtained from Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. Eleven mutants of this type are now known on the basis of specimens or photo- graphs from four counties in northern Florida and three southern states besides Florida. The purpose of this paper is to report the additional examples of this mutation and to briefly describe its ex- pression in the juvenal plumage of a young specimen from north- eastern Florida. JUVENAL PLUMAGE On June 28, 1966, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Com- mission Game Manager C. T. Lee obtained one pale-colored (Fig. 1) and four normal-colored turkey specimens from a flock in Brad- ford County, Florida. The five specimens appear to be siblings about 70 days old (Knoder, 1959) in mixed juvenal and _ post- juvenal plumage (see Leopold, 1943, for a discussion of the latter plumage ). : The general coloration of the plumage of the pale female ju- venal specimen is “smoke gray” (color terminology. after Palmer, 1962) but the juvenal feathers are darker than the incoming post- juvenal plumage. Feather by feather comparisons among a sample of normal specimens reveals that there are more dark mark- ings in juvenal feathers than in feathers that replace them. This difference in darkness between the two feather generations is maintained in the pale specimens; otherwise, there is little differ- ence in color and markings between the 70-day old specimen and the older sub-adult specimens described earlier (Williams, 1964). DISCUSSION Whenever off-colored wild turkey specimens are mentioned, the possibility that they have resulted from crosses between wild WituiaMs: Mutant Wild Turkey 237 Fig. 1. Sibling female wild turkeys, approximately 70 days old. From left to right, dorsal and ventral views of pale mutant and normal-colored specimen, respectively. and domestic strains usually arises. This question has been dis- cussed before ( Williams, 1964) and dismissed as unlikely because of the lack of evidence of such crossing between wild and domestic turkeys. Since that was written, the Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission has produced in captivity a large series of specimens representing 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 7/8, and full wild ancestry. The siblings of the 70-day old pale mutant, and the mutant itself except in re- spect to color, resemble the specimens of full wild ancestry closely but are easily distinguished from the hybrids by color, size, and body conformation. This indicates that the pale mutants are far removed from the generation in which any alleged hybridization might have taken place and lends further support to the belief that miscoloration in wild turkeys is a condition arising independently in the wild population and is not necessarily related to crossing with domestic turkeys. 238 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The specimens mentioned are in the collection of the Wildlife Research Projects Office in Gainesville, Florida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank C. T. Lee, Robert W. Skinner, Leon Johenning, and Russell Davis for sending specimens and photo- graphs of pale mutant specimens. This paper is in part a contri- bution of the Florida Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Program, Florida Pittman-Robertson Project W-41-17. LITERATURE CITED Knoper, E. 1959. An aging technique for juvenal wild turkeys based on the rate of primary feather moult and growth. p. 159-176. In Pro- ceedings of the first national wild turkey management symposium. Southeastern Section, The Wildlife Society, Memphis. LEOPOLD, A. STARKER. 1943. The molts of young wild and domestic turkeys. Condor, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 133-145. Patmer, R. S., ed. 1962. Handbook of North American birds. Vol. 1. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven and London, 561 pp. WituiaMs, L. E., Jr. 1964. A recurrent color aberrancy in the wild turkey. Jour. Wild]. Mgmt. vol. 28, pp. 148-152. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Wildlife Re- search Projects Office, Gainesville, Florida 32601. | Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969( 1970) The Generic Position of a Cretaceous Bird PIERCE BRODKORB Cimolopteryx is a genus of fossil birds that occurs in the Lance formation of the latest Cretaceous of Wyoming. In describing it Marsh (1892) included two species without designating either as its type, but this omission was subsequently rectified by Hay (1902), who selected Cimolopteryx rara. For years the genus re- mained among the Aves Incertae Sedis, until material recently col- lected by field parties of the University of California permitted the establishment of a family Cimolopterygidae, at the base of the order Charadriiformes and hence ancestral to the shore birds, gulls, and auks (Brodkorb, 1963). The second species, described by Marsh as Cimolopteryx retusus, possesses many unique characters that require its removal to a different genus. In the paper cited above I reluctantly referred it to Apatornis Marsh. This procedure is unsatisfactory, however, as Apatornis celer, the type of that genus, is restricted to a much earlier stage of the Cretaceous and is allied to Ichthyornis. In view of these considerations I propose for it the fol- lowing genus in the family Cimolopterygidae. Palintropus, new genus Type of Genus. Cimolopteryx retusus Marsh, which becomes Palintropus retusus (Marsh). Etymology. Greek palintropos (masculine, that which is turned back), from palin (backwards) and trepo (I bend), in reference to the recurved glenoid facet of the coracoid. Diagnosis. Resembles Cimolopteryx Marsh and Ceramornis Brodkorb of the family Cimolopterygidae, but coracoid differs in having glenoid facet greatly extended laterally, strongly re- curved, with surface somewhat concave; scapular facet a shal- low cup; no procoracoid process in part preserved, but grooves on shaft may indicate the presence of a procoracoid process in life; anterior face of shaft deeply concave along glenoid facet. Discussion. In the Lance formation, the family Cimoloptery- 240 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES gidae is now known from five species referable to three genera. Through the kindness of Dr. Robert E. Sloan I have also seen fossils of this family from the Hell Creek formation in Montana, but study of this material has not been completed as _ yet. LITERATURE CITED Bropkors, Pierce. 1963. Birds from the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming. Proc. XII{th Internat. Ornith. Congress, pp. 55-70, figs. 1-10. 1967. Catalogue ot fossil birds: Part 3 (Ralliformes, Ichthyornithi- formes, Charadriiformes). Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 99-220. Hay, O. P. 1902. Bibliography and catalogue of the fossil vertebrata of North America. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., no. 179, pp. 1-868. Marsu, O. C. 1892. Notes on Mesozoic vertebrate fossils. Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 44, no. 260, pp. 171-176, pls. 2-5. Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 32(3) 1969(1970) FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1970 American Medical Research Institute Archbold Expeditions Barry College Florida Atlantic University Florida Institute of Technology Florida Presbyterian College Florida Southern College Florida State University Florida Technological University Jacksonville University Manatee Junior College Marymount College Miami-Dade Junior College Mound Park Hospital Foundation Nova University of Advanced Technology Ormond Beach Hospital Rollins College St. Leo College Stetson University United States Sugar Corporation University of Florida University of Florida Communications Sciences Laboratory University of Miami University of South Florida University of Tampa University of West Florida FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 OFFICERS FOR 1970 President: TAyLtor R. ALEXANDER Department of Biology, University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 33124 President Elect: RicHarp E. GARRETT Department of Physics, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Secretary: RoBERT W. LonG peseinen of Botany, University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 Treasurer: E. Morton MILLER Department of Biology, University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 33124 Editor: Przrcze BRODKORB | Department of Zoology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, and orders for back numbers should be addressed to the Treasurer Correspondence regarding exchanges should be addressed to Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries Gainesville, Florida 32601 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 32 December, 1969 No. 4 CONTENTS Some hydrobiid snails from Georgia and Florida Fred G. Thompson Entry behavior of the crab Pinnotheres maculatus Say Anne Eidemiller Diurnal zooplankton ecology in a phosphate pit lake George K. Reid and Norman J. Blake Natural hybrids between two toad species in Alabama Lauren E. Brown Land birds of Isla Saona, Reptblica Dominicana Albert Schwartz Reptiles of Little Tobago Island, West Indies James J. Dinsmore Family treatment as a therapeutic approach to alcoholism Edwin C. Bowers, A. Van Lewen, and James H. Williams Mailed September 30, 1970 241 266 310 HSO, AN Ni4y ULt 19 1970 L/BRARIED QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing significant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets of 8% by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees. Mazcins should be 1% inches all around. TirLes should not exceed 55 characters, including spaces. Footnotes should be avoided. Give ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in the text and ADDRESS in paragraph form following Literature Cited. LITERATURE Crrep follows the text. Double-space and follow the form in the current volume. For articles give title, journal, volume, and inclusive pages. For books give title, publisher, place, and total pages. TABLEs are charged to authors at $20.00 per page or fraction. Titles must be short, but explanatory matter may be given in footnotes. Type each table on a separate sheet, double-spaced, unruled, to fit normal width of page, and place after Literature Cited. LeceEnps for illustrations should be grouped on a sheet, double-spaced, in the form used in the current volume, and placed after Tables. Titles must be short but may be followed by explanatory matter. ILLUSTRATIONS are charged to authors ($17.30 per page, $15.80 per half page. Drawincs should be in India ink, on good board or drafting paper, and lettered by lettering guide or equivalent. Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. PHoroGcraPHs should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of photographs. Proor must be returned prompily. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTS may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 32 December, 1969 No. 4 Some Hydrobiid Snails from Georgia and Florida FreD G. THOMPSON ReEcENT field work in Georgia and western Florida has revealed five new species of hydrobiid snails. These species are of particular interest because of their systematic and geographic affinities. The new taxa described below change concepts on the systematics of species and genera previously described from the eastern and northcentral United States. The species are herein described prior to more extensive studies of older known taxa so that the new species may be referred to in studies of parasitology and ecology currently underway in Florida and Georgia. All of the species dealt with below belong to the group that I called the Somatogyrus tribe (Thompson, 1968). Sub- sequent to the Florida study it was discovered that other genera, in- cluding Marstonia F. C. Baker, belong to this group, while Soma- togyrus differs conspicuously from these other genera by having a verge similar to that of Gillia Stimpson, 1865, as is described below. The only available name is Nymphophilinae Taylor, 1966 for this group of North American hydrobiids that is characterized by the possession of dermal glands on the verge and a blade- like penis situated along the right distal margin of the verge (Thompson, 1968). Somatogyrus and Gillia should probably be placed in the subfamily Lithoglyphinae Troschel, 1856 (see Tay- lor, 1966). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For bringing to my attention the interesting hydrobiid fauna present in the Ocmulgee River system and for assistance in field work I am grateful to Mr. Richard W. Heard, Jr., Marine Institute, University of Georgia. Dr. Harold J. Walter, Dayton, 242, QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ohio, has provided me with anatomical material of Marstonia lustrica (Pilsbry). The shell drawings accompanying this paper are due to the skillful artistry of Miss Susan Myking, Gainesville, Florida. Marstonia F. C. Baker, 1926 Type species by original designation: Amnicola lustrica Pilsbry, 1890. Baker (1928: 104) included seven species in Marstonia: Amni- cola lustrica Pilsbry, A. gelida F. C. Baker, A. oneida Pilsbry, A. walkeri Pilsbry, A. pilsbryi Walker, A. greenensis F. C. Baker and A. winkleyi Pilsbry. Of this series A. walkeri and A. pilsbryi are known to belong to Amnicola, s. g. Lyogyrus (Thompson, 1968). A. oneida and A. winkleyi are anatomically unknown and cannot be placed with certainty in any recognized genus. Baker (1928) stated that the animal of A. oneida was like that of A. lustrica, but his observations on lustrica are so much in error that his comparison is of dubious value. A. gelida and A. greenensis are Pleistocene fos- sils. Speculation about their generic affinities is fruitless. Thus the only species unequivocably placed in Marstonia is the genotype, A. lustrica. The anatomy of this species has been adequately described and illustrated by Berry (1943). The discovery of the new species described below signifi- cantly changes the concept and definition of Marstonia as given by Berry (1943). The genus is redefined as follows: Shell attenuate, almost twice as high as wide. Apex elevated. Apical whorl protruding and rounded. Aperture ovate or subovate. Peristome continuous or discontinuous across parietal wall. Um- bilicus narrow, perforate. Verge stout, weakly bifid at distal end. Left distal margin projecting as a low pedicel which bears an enlarged epidermal gland. (This gland is probably homologous to the apical crest of Cincinnatia). Penis at extreme right, and projecting from end of verge. The radula is non-distinctive except that it is relatively minute. It consists of 42-47 transverse rows of teeth. The central tooth bears a single basocone on each side, an enlarged mesocone and 3-5 ecto- cones on each side of the mesocone. The lateral tooth bears 2-3 entocones, an enlarged mesocone and 4-5 ectocones. The two mar- ginal teeth each bear about 15-20 minute cusps. THomepson: Some Hydrobiid Snails 243 The relationship of Marstonia to other genera within the subfamily Nymphophilinae is difficult to determine. In contrast to most other genera the only gland present on the verge is the raised epidermal gland along the left distal margin. In this respect Marstonia is similar to Rhapinema. Both genera are also similar to having a single basocone on each half of the central tooth of the radula. The genera differ so remarkably in shell structure and shape that a close relationship within the subfamily does not seem likely. The similarities of their anatomies may be only the result of seeming convergence through the loss of other features. Marstonia agarhecta new species Diacnosis. A species placed in Marstonia because of charac- teristics of its verge. The verge bears a single enlarged epidermal gland raised on a low fleshy pedicel along its left margin, and has a short penis that terminates along the distal end of the verge. In characteristics of its verge it differs from M. lustrica (Pilsbry) by having a relatively longer but more slender penis, and by having the epidermal gland more restricted on the fleshy pedicel (see fig. 1, F-G for comparison). The shell is characterized by being of very small size, it is very fragile, it has an incomplete peristome and it has 4.4-4.6 whorls at ma- turity. M. lustrica has a considerably larger shell (about 4 mm long and 2.5 mm wide), the shell is solid though not thick, has a complete peristome and has about 5 whorls at maturity (an excellent description of M. lustrica is given by Berry, 1943). SHELL (Fig. 1, A-D; Fig. 11). Minute, very thin and fragile. Conical, 0.65-0.74 times as wide as high. Shell dimorphic in shape, females tending to be broader than males. Narrowly umbilicate. Peristome grayish white. Shell transparent. Whorls 44-46; apical whorl 0.23-0.25 mm in diameter; protruding, strongly rounded and with a deep suture; with very fine close microscopic axial striations. Following whorls strongly rounded; suture deeply impressed. Body whorl weakly shouldered. Sculp- ture on lower whorls consisting of very fine, close incremental stria- tions that are equal in intensity over the surface of the whorl. Aper- ture ovate, 0.45-0.52 times height of shell; 0.77-0.83 times as wide as high. Aperture oblique, axis lying at about 30° to shell axis. Only 244 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A B C ; E ; Fig. 1. Marstonia agarhecta usp. (A-F) and (G) Marstonia lustrica (Pilsbry) from canal, Midway, Clark County, Ohio. A, D, holotype. B- C, paratypes. E, operculum. F-G, dorsal surface of verge. Scales equal 1 mm. slightly oblique to shell axis in lateral profile. Peristome discon- tinuous across parietal wall. Parietal callus consisting only of a very thin glaze. Columella concave, very thin, weakly reflected. Outer THompson: Some Hydrobiid Snails 245 lip weakly arched forward above periphery, slightly reflected near weakly arched forward above periphery, slightly reflected near base. Measurements of large specimens (holotype in parenthesis ): length of shell, 2.3-2.7 mm (2.65); width of shell, 1.6-1.95 mm (1.75); aperture height, 1.1-1.3 mm (1.2); aperture width, 0.9-1.05 mm (0.95). OpercuLUM (Fig. 1, E). Very thin, membranous. Broadly ovate, slightly indented along parental margin. Colorless or only slightly tinged with yellow. Consisting of about 2.5 whorls. Paucispiral. Nucleus large, located at about one third of dis- tance from the base to the apex and from the columellar margin to the opposite side. Outer surface sculptured with a few fine incremental striations. VercE (Fig. 1, F). The verge originated on the nape slightly to the right of the mid-dorsal line and beneath the mantle collar. It is stout and slightly compressed dorso-ventrally. The distal left margin terminates in a weakly lobed pedicel that bears an enlarged epidermal gland. The penis lies along the extreme right and distal margin of the verge. It is relatively long and slender compared to M. lustrica (see Fig. 1, G for comparison). The vas deferens lies along the right margin of the verge and termi- nates at the tip of the penis. Raputa. Minute, about 450 » long, and containing about 42-46 transverse rows of teeth (10 specimens examined). Central tooth about 19 » wide and bearing an enlarged mesocone with 3-5 ectocones and 1 basicone on each side. The lateral tooth bears 2-1-4 to 3-1-5 cusps. Two marginal teeth each bear about 20 minute cusps. The structure of the central and lateral teeth do not differ from those of M. lustrica as described and illustrated by Berry (1943, pl. III, fig. 3). Type Locauiry. Bluff Creek, 10.4 miles south-southeast of Hawkinsville, Pulaski County, Georgia. Honotypre: UF 20528; collected 31 January, 1969 by Fred G. Thompson. PARATYPEs: UF 20529 (296); same data as holotype. Specimens were collected in clear water with only a slight current. They were found predominately in diatomaceous ooze on top of old submerged logs. A few specimens were also found in silt that contained large amounts of diatoms, but such specimens 246 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES were only infrequently encountered, whereas specimens on sub- merged logs were abundant. Remarks. This species is known only from the type locality, although it may occur in other tributaries of the Ocmulgee River Fig. 2. Rhapinema dacryon n.g. n.sp. A-B, holotype. C-D, paratype. Scales equal 1 mm. THompson: Some Hydrobiid Snails 247 system. It is remarkably isolated in its distribution from M. lustricia. The latter species has been recorded only from states bordering the Great Lakes. Rhapinema new genus Type Species. Rhapinema dacryon new species. The genus is monotypic. DeFinition. A member of the family Hydrobiidae Troschel, 1856 and the subfamily Nymphophilinae Taylor, 1966. It is placed in this relationship by possessing in the verge a single duct, the vas deferens, by having a laterally situated penis on the right margin of the verge and by having glandular masses on the surface of the verge. Rhapinema is characterized by and differs from other genera in the subfamily by having a long flagellar penis that originates along the right margin but near the tip of the verge and by having a single small gandular patch along the right distal margin of the verge. Also, glands are absent on the surface of the penis unlike other genera of the Nymphophilinae. Charac- teristics of the radula are non-distinctive, except that the cusps on the lateral tooth have their cutting edges linearly arranged as opposed to being accuminate as occurs in other related genera. The shell is broadly ovate, imperforate and thick with about 4.0-4.5 whorls. The peristome is incomplete across the parietal margin which has only a thin glaze. The columellar margin has a thick wide callus. The apical whorl is 0.26-0.29 mm in diameter and is weakly constricted by the suture. The apical whorl is sculptured with minute dense punctations. Characteristics of the operculum are non-distinctive but are described below in the account of the species. The shell retains generalized aspects and shows no special character that allows identification except at the specific level. Part of this dilemma is due to the many species described as Somatogyrus which remain anatomically unknown. Not consider- ing Somatogyrus, Rhapinema differs from other genera, except Nymphophilus, by having an incomplete peristome across the parietal margin. Its shell differs from that of Nymphophilus in that the latter is umbilicate and is trochoid in shape. 248 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The relationship of Rhapinema is remote to other genera of the Nymphophilinae. All of the known genera placed in the subfamily have a penis that is generally blade-like and originates nearer the middle of the right margin of the verge. Also, other AO S- apical crest verge SS penis apical crest Fig. 3. Rhapinema dacryon n.g. n.sp. oak is wt _ ae ne eae .0, oaek \ Nie fC ES A, fe ha ~C ee. jm : Uf 447 L rd vA hi Ase m S\S = Aah m ry o : 3 m “NOS wn sa = wo z ie st ARI ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS, Sa 1yV: = ie = gh, = St “ys Ma 3 a. Foe sO, = Ee) ee SS z F , aia z fa he = is ee y = 5 Ww) ‘Ie w . 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